531 

■Ts 



U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS— BULLETIN NO. 127. 

A. C. TRUE, Director. 



INSTRUCTION IN AGRONOMY AT 
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. 



A. G. TR^TJE and ID. J. CROSBY. 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1!)0 3. 




aass_SjL5. 



u. s. ui':PAi<'i"Mi':N'r oi" At.uici ltukii 

OFFICE OP EXPERIMENT STATIONS- BULLETIN NO. 127. 



A. C. TRUE, Director. 



J' i- 6. 



INSTIiK'TlON IN AIJRONOMY AT SOME 
AURIOULTllUL ('UJ.LECE8. 



A. O. TKTTK una J). .1. (JROtSJiY 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING GEFICE. 
1 9 3 . 



-ynr\ov% c §-A^^ ^*^ 



*^ .- t^ «"> r ' : : '■': 



J 






OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 

A. C. True, Ph. \\—I)imior. 

E. AV. Allex, Ph. D. — .l.s.s/.s7(0(< Director and Kdltor of E.rpcrbnail Slaiiuii llccord. 

W. H. Beal — CI uef of Editorial Division. 

C. E. Johnston — Chief Clerk. 

KDITOKIAl. J)KrAUT.MENTS. 

E. W. Allen, Ph. D., and H. W. La\v.son — Chanidrii, Dairtj Fannimj, and Dairi/inij. 

W. H. Beal — Agricultural Physics and Engineering. 

Walter H. Evans, Ph. D. — Botany and Diseases of Plants. 

C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D. — Foods and Animal Production. 

J. I. SciiuLTE — Field Crops. 

E. Y. Wilcox, Ph. D. — Enlouutlogii and Veterinary Science. 

C. B. Smith — Horticnlture. 

D. J. Crosby — Agricultural Institution.^. 



mVM OF TRANSMITTAL. 



U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Office of Experiment Stations, 

Wa.^/u')ifft(w, D. C, Man 1^^ 1-^03. 
Siu: L h:i\'o tlu' lionor to tninsinit herewith ii report on eoui-fses in 
ai»roM(jiuy in sevenil agricultural eollcg(\s. There is now consideral)le 
aetivity in our agricultural colleges in developing and strengthening 
the courses of instruction in this division of the science of agriculture. 
Th(> report has been prepared at the suggestion of th(> couuiiittee on 
methods of teaching agriculture of the Association of American Agri- 
cultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, and is an outcome of the 
work of that committee. I feel sure that such a comparati\'e presenta- 
tion of courses actually l)eing given in some of our colleges will aid in 
the further development and strengthening of this line of work in 
other institutions, and I therefore recommend the publication of the 
report as Bulletin 127 of this Ofhce. 

The illustrations have })een carefully selected from a large number 
furnished by the colleges, and are intended to show distinctive features 
of the e([uipment for instruction in agronomy at the institutions repre- 
sented in the ])ulletin. 

Respectfully, A. C. True, 

Director. 
Hon. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agrlcnltarc. 



CONTILXTS. 



Page. 

Purpose and scope of this liulletin 9 

Work of the coiiiniittee on methods of teachiiia' atrrieulture 11 

Sj'Uabns of course ui agronoinj' '. 1 o 

OutHne for a course of lectures or a text-book <>n atirnndiny 16 

Practicunis or laboratory work in agronomy 18 

Detailed description of courses in agronomy 18 

Alal)ama Polytechnic Institute 18 

Kxhil)it No. 1. — Examinations in agroudmy 21 

Exhibit No. 2.— Students' field notes 22 

The College of Agriculture of the University of Illinois 23 

Exhibit No. o. — Judging corn 30 

Exhibit No. 4. — Students' laboratory blanks in soil physics 32 

Michigan Agricultural College 37 

Exhibit No. 5. — A few of the practicums in agronomy 42 

Exhibit No. 6. — Examination questions in soils and crojis 47 

College of Agriculture of the University of JMinnesota 47 

The University of Nebraska 51 

Ohio State University 5(5 

Exhibit No. 7. — Laboratory work in the elementary course in soils.. 59 

Exhibit No. 8. — Detailed schedule of laboratory work 69 

Exhibit No. 9. — Examination in elementary course in farm crops. ... 70 
Exhibit No. 10. — List of laboratory or field ])racticums in elementary 

course in farm crojis 71 

The Agricultural Institute of tiie University of (i(>ttingen 74 

History 74 

Present organizati< m 76 

Requirements for admission 77 

Course of study 77 

Methods of instruction 78 

Instruction in agronomy 79 

Facilities for instruction 82 

5 



ILLUSTR.VriONS. 



PLATES. 



Page. 
Plate I. University of Illinoiy, Inrd's-evi' view of ajirieultural Iniildin^' 

ansl experiment fields 28 

ir. Fiu'. 1. — University of Illinois, class in agronomy studyin<,' root 
development of corn. Fig. 2. — University of Illinois, class 
in agronomy collecting samples of soil 28 

III. Fig. 1. — University of Illinois, soil fertility laboratory for analy- 

sis and synthesis of soils and fertilizers. Fig. 2. — Univer- 
sity of Illinois, class in agronomy in pot cnltiire laboratory 28 

IV. Fig. 1. — University of Illinois, soil physics laboratory. Fig. 2. — 

University of Illinois, farm crops seed laboratory 28 

V. Michigan Agricultural ( V)llege, Agricultural Hall 40 

VI. Fig. 1. — INIichigan Agricultural College, students making me- 
chanical analj'ses of soils. Fig. 2. — Michigan Agricultural 

College, soils laboratory and class room 40 

VII. Fig. 1. — University of Minnesota, Dairy Hall. Fig. 2. — Univer- 
sity of Minnesota, emasculating and cross pollinating wheat. . 50 
VIII. Fig. I. — University of Minnesota, Centgener thrashing machine 
and fanning-mill separator in use in the field crop nursery. 
Fig. 2. — University of ^linnesota, machine for planting grain 

in nurserj' beds 50 

IX. University of Nebraska, agricultural building 52 

X. Fig. 1. — University of Nebraska, field crops laljoratory, students 
judging seed corn. Fig. 2. — University of Nebraska, soils 

lal moratory 52 

XL I'ig. 1. — University of Nebraska, apparatus for making determi- 
nations of soil moisture. Fig. 2. — University of Nel)raska, 

experiment plats 52 

XII. Fig. 1. — University of Nebraska, seed laboratory. Fig. 2. — Uni- 
versity of Nebraska, a corner in the seed storeroom 52 

XIII. Ohio State University, Townshend Hall 58 

XIV. Fig. 1. — ( )hio State University, mechanii'al anal vsis of soil. Fig. 

2. — Ohio State University, torsion balance used in soil jihys- 

ics lal )oratorj' ()8 

XV. Guttingen Agriodtural Institute, main 1 )uilding 76 

XVI. Fig. 1. — Gottingen Agricultural Institute, looking southeast. 
Fig. 2. — G(")ttingen Agricultural Institute, looking northeast 

from institute buildings across the exjieriment plats 84 

XVII. Gottingen Agricultural Institute, greenhouse 84 

7 



rsXT FIGURES. 

Page. 
Fig. 1. Centrifuge, phaker, and electric motor used in mechanical analysis of 

soils 28 

2. Tubes of galvanized iron used to stud,v effectiveness of mulches upim 

moisture losses 40 

o. King's aspirator to determine the effective size of soil grains 41 

4. Apparatus used to study the movement of air througli soils 43 

5. Apparatus used to study percolation of water through soils 44 

6. Hot-air drying oven 46 

7. Centrifugal seed-grading machine 51 

8. Movable soil thermometer 53 

9. Soil sampling apparatus 54 

10. Apparatus for determining specific gravity of soils 60 

11. Determination of volume weight, ajijiarcnt specific gravity, and poros- 

ity of soils 61 

12. Soil-compacting machine 02 

13. Determining the i)Ower of soils to retain moisttn-ti 63 

14. Rate of percolation of water through soils 64 

15. Apparatus to determine the rate of flow of air through soils 65 

16. Soil tubes for showing the effect of mulches on evaporation of water 

from soils 65 

17. Determining the power of air-dry soils to absorb moisture from tlier.ir. 66 

18. Measuring capillarity in soils 67 

19. Apparatus for testing the adhesiveness of soils 68 

20. Card's apparatus for testing the adhesiveness of soils 69 

2 1 . Apparatus for taking soil samjiles 70 

22. Plan of experiment grounds at CJottingen Agricultural Institute 83 



INSTRUCTION IN AGRONOMY AT SOME AGRICUL- 
TURAL COLLEGES. 



PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THIS BULLETIN. 

Thi.s l)ulletin is ])asod on the reports of the committee on methods 
of teaching agriculture of the Association of American Agricultural 
Colleges and Experiment Stations and on further inquiries made b}' 
the OtHce of Experiment Stations. It is intended to supplement the 
work of the committee in collating detailed information regarding 
instruction in agronomy. The status of that work at the time the 
committee made its sixth report "^ is indicated li}^ the following para- 
graph from that report ; 

After consultation with tlie instructors in agriculture in the different colleges, it 
has seemed well for your committee to undertake to j^resent in some detail informa- 
tion regarding the courses in agriculture and the facilities for instruction in this 
subject in our colleges. It is especially desirable to put on record data regarding 
distinctive features of these courses and the materials for demonstration and illustra- 
tion already existing in different institutions. Your committee has, therefore, 
undertaken during the present year to collate such information regarding the course 
in agronomy. Considerable material has already been accumulated, but some time 
must elapse before it will be in form for publication. Your committee therefore 
asks that it may be granted leave to print its report on agronomy in our agricultural 
colleges, in whole or in part, in the next proceedings of this association, and l)e given 
authority to negotiate with the Office of Experiment Stations for the separate pub- 
lication of its detailed report on this subject. 

Authority to publish its detailed report in accordance with the 
above request was granted the committee, which, however, was not 
able to prepare the material in time for printing in the proceedings 
of the association. This Office undertook, therefore, to complete the 
report and publish it. 

Subsequent inquiries on the part of the Office of Experiment Stations 
by correspondence, by members of the Office force making ^'isits of 
inspection to the agricultural experiment stations, and by a special 
officer sent to visit a number of the colleges, showed that while many 

CI Presented at the convention of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges 
and Experiment Stations in Washington, D. C, November 12-14, 1901. 

9 



10 

of the agTiciiltunil colleg-es have made some progress in differentiating 
agronomy from the other ,sul)divisions of agriculture, onl}- a few have 
developed well-balanced courses in agronomy, with laboratory and 
tield practicums in which special fornis for scoring different crops and 
specially devised apparatus are used. It soon became apparent that 
it would not be feasible to publish within the scope of a Department 
bulletin detailed information regarding the courses of study in all the 
agricultural coll(\iies in the I'^nited States and, furthermore, that such 
pu])lication would not at present be desirable because (1) it would 
include a munl)er of institutions that have not yet ))een able or have 
not found it desiral)le to differentiate agronomy from the general sub- 
ject of agriculture; and (2) it would include some colleges that are 
just reorganizing their courses of instruction with reference to the 
su])di\isions of agriculture, including agronomy, and are not now in 
a position to make a showing commensurate with their facilities for 
instruction. 

It has been decidinl, therefore, to include in this l)ulletin (1) a brief 
review of the work of the conunittee on methods of teaching agricul- 
ture, together with such excerpts from the reports of that committee 
as have a l^earing on the present discussion; and (2) detailed descrip- 
tions of courses in agronomy in seven agricultural colleges — six in the 
United States and one in Europe. The institutions selected include 
(1) two colleges not connected with universities — Alabama in the 
South and Michigan in the North; (2) two university colleges having 
schools of agriculture (agricultural high schools) connected with 
them — Minnesota and Nebraska; (3) two universit}- colleges in which 
no provision for preparatory work is made — Illinois and Ohio; and 
(1) a university college in (xermany — the Agricultural Institute of the 
Universit}^ of (Tottingen. 

In the detailed statements regarding the course in agronomy in 
these institutions the four-year agricultural course has been consid- 
ered in a general wa}' as to its purpose, requirements for admission, 
and scope; then attention has been given to agronomy, its position in 
the four-year course, preparation for it secured by means of previous 
work in botany and chemistry, its scope and the method of presenta- 
tion to the students. Under this last head an account has been given 
of the equipment used, such as l)uildings, lecture and la))oratorv rooms, 
apparatus, collections, special forms, libi-ar}' facilities, and land, and the 
leading features of this equipment have l)een illustrated. In th(^ prep- 
aration of these detail(Ml statements Prof. J. F. Duggar, of Alabama; 
Dr. C. G. Hopkins, of Illinois; Prof. J. A. Jeffrey, of Michigan; 
Prof. W. M. Hays, of Minnesota; Prof. T. L. Lyon, of Nebraska, and 
Prof. W. D. Gibbs, of Texas (fornun-ly of Ohio), have rendered 
valuable assistance. 



11 



WORK OF THE COMMITTEE ON METHODS OF TEACHING 
AGRICULTURE. 

The first report of the conunittee on methods of teachino- agricul- 
ture" pointed out that "one great ol)stach^ to the intelligent discussion 
of thef^chenie of agricultural instruction and the methods of agricul- 
tural teaching is the lack of a (h^liidte uomeiiclalui'c^ of the sul>ject,"' 
and suggested "■ for the consideration of the association a tentati\e 
schonu^ for the (Ii\ision of what is commonly <lesignated agricultni'(^ 
in courses of study into several distinct branches or sul)divisions. uiid 
for giving each of these l)ranches a detiidtc name, as follows: 

1. Agfoiioiiiy, or as^ricultuiv f Climate, soils, Icrtilizers, and ir()]is — 
(technictil). | ])Iant production. 

2. Zootechny, <)i- iiniinal in- 1 Animal physioloiiv an<l animal prddnc- 
dustry. \ tion. 

Ajrrotedmy, or ai^ricul- ) Aj^ricultural indnstrics, c u'., dairyiiiii:, 



Ao;i!cultin>' 



tural teclinology. 
-1. Ikural engineering, farm 

mei-hanic'S, or farm 

iHjuipment. 
ri. liural economy oi' farm 

management. 



sugar makinv'. 

Roads, drains, irrii 
l)uil(lin<r.<, etc. 



atioii svst('m^ 



( icneral j)olicy of farm management, 
rural law, agricultural liookkeeping, 
etc. 



In its second report'' the conmiittee first undeilook ''to determine 
the general relation of a course in technical agriculture to the other 
courses of study which shoidd ])e connected with this to form a four- 
year course in an agricultural college," adopting as a working hasis 
the following portion of the report of the ccmnnittee on entrance 
requirements, courses of study, and degrees: '' 

In the judgment of your committee, it is not too inucli to recjuire the ecjuivalent 
of fifteen hours per week of recitations and lectures, together with ten hours per 
week of laboratory work, or practicums, including the time devoted to military 
science and drill. Upon this basis the above-mentioned general studies should be 
assigned a relative importance, apjiroximately as follows: 





Hours. 


Algel )ra 


75 


Geometry 


40 


Trigonometrv 


40 


Physics (class-room work ) 


75 


Physics (laboratory work) 


75 


Chemistry (class-room work) . 


75 


Chemistry (laboratory work) .. 


75 


Enslish ' 


. . 200 



]\h )dern languages 

Psychology 

Ethics or logic 

Political economy 

(General history 

Constitutional law 



Honrf. 
340 
60 
40 
60 
SO 
50 



Total 1,285 



"Report presented to the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and 
Experiment Stations at the convention held in AVashington, I). C., November 10-12, 
1896. See U. S. Dept. Agr., Ollice of Experiment Stations Bui. 41, p. 57, and 
Circ. 32. 

^SeeU. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 40, j.. 20, and Circ. 37. 

'See V. S. Dept. Agr., Otlice of lOxperiment Stations Pul. 41, p. 52. 



12 

The total number of hours included in a four-j'ear course, allowing fifteen hours 
jjer week for thirty-six weeks, would be 2,140; with ten hours' laboratory work, or 
practicums, added, 3,600. In general terms, therefore, the foregoing general studies 
should comprise about two-fifths of the work required for a bachelor's degree. 

The committee on methods of teaching' ag'riculture then suggested 
"additional su]>jects to l)e included in a four-year course in a4;ricul- 
tur(^ leading- to tlie degree bachelor of science." as follows: 

lldiirs. 

.Vgricultui'c 486 

Horticulture and forestry 180 

Veterinary science, including anatomy 1 80 

Agricultural chemistry, in addition to general ri'qiiiremeut 180 

Botany (including vegetable physiology and ])athol(igy) ,. 180 

Zoology ( including entomology) 1 20 

Physiology 1 80 

Geology 1 20 

Meteoroli )u'y 60 

Draw ing 60 

T. ital 1 , 74(> 

Taking' up. then, the subject of agriculture, the couuuitteo I'ccom- 
mended the foHowing allotments of time to its subdivisions: 

ll.mrs. 

1. Agronomy, or plant ])rodut'tion i;)2 

2. Zootechny, or animal industry 162 

.">. Agrotechny, or agricultural tcclm< >logy 72 

4. Kural engineering, or farm mechanics 60 

r>. Kural economics, or farm management 60 

T< .tal 486 

It was also annoiuict'd that the committiM' woidd next take up in 
detail the topics ])roperly included under the head of "•Ag-ronomy," 
" with a view t(^pre.senting• a syllabus of a course in tliat subject which 
shall show with som(> fidlness tin* topics to be treated, their relative 
importance, the tim(> which shoidd be devoted to each, and especially 
the order of presentation which conforms most closely to sound peda- 
g-()g-ical principles." This was done in tlie third report" of the com- 
mittee, which was di\ ided into three ])ai'ts. as follows: 

( 1 ; A syllabus defining the limits of a course in agronomy, and stating the to])ics 
included in agronomy in the order in which they should be i>reseuted to 
students, i. i'., in their logical and j)edagogical order. 

(2) A scries of lecture or chapter headings showing how the syllabus for agronomy 
maybe ai)iilic(l in |)rei)aring a course of lectures or a text-book on this sub- 
ject, i-overing ninety-nine class-room hours or periodfjof sixty mimites each, 
i. e., three lecture or recitation i)eriods a week. 

(:{) A series of subjec-ts for practicums or laboratory exercises to be used in con- 
nection with the class-room work in agronomy, and covering the thirty-tln-ee 
remaining liours or periods (equivalent to sixty-six liours of sixty minutes 
each), assigned to the course in agronomy, i. e., one i>racticum per week. 

"See r. S. Dept. -Vgr., Office of Experiment Stations Kul. (i5, p. 70, and Cir<^ 39. 



13 

It lias liccu tlic ubjcct (if llic coiuniittL-c to make surh an (Hitliric nf this coiirst^ as 
can easily he adjusted to the re([uirenieiits of institutions with different organization 
and environment. Wliile the syllabus is intended to limit the range of subjects 
which may properly be included under agronomy, the amount of attention which 
shall be given to particular topics will vary according to circumstances. The series 
of chapters and practicums are in a measure intended simply to show a way in wliich 
the subject of agronomy may l)e presented in actual itractice. This is especially true 
of that i)ortion of the course which relates to individual farm crops, to which atten- 
tion will naturally be given according to their relative importance in different 
localities 

SYLLABUS OF COURSE IN AGRONOMY. 



Definition 



The plant 



Plant ckoduction 



Envikonment 

(Clcncral fiu'tors. 



Theory and practice of tlie production of farm crops. In 
agronomy we need to consider the several kinds of plants 
grown as farm crops under the following subjects: 

Structure (anatoii'y). 
Composition. 
Physiology. 
Environment. 

f In agriculture has for its object the adaptation of environ. 

I ment to the anatomy and physiology of the jilants under 

I cultivation, with a view to securing crops whicli are l)est 

I suited to the uses of man or the domestic animals. 

We may conveniently begin the study of jilant production 
by considering the general characteristics of the environment 
of plants as grown in the tielil. 

Light. 
Heat. 

^Moisture 1 

Air 



Soil 



Natural 

With fertilizers 



Plant food. 



But environment may Ije conveniently divided acconlin;. 
to position, as follows: 



ENVim)N.MENT 

(Divided according U> 
position.) (Chapters 
I-III of lecture out- 
line page 16.) 



1. Above ground. 
( climate ) 



Under ground. 

(soil) 



Light ... 

Heat 

Moisture 
Air 



Heat 

Moisture 

Air 

Earth (soil) . 
Fertilizers . . . 



Study the relation of 
each of these factors 
to jilant growth, and 
also briefly their ef- 
fects in different com- 
Tnnations, i. e., differ- 
ent (ilimates. 

Point out that the rela- 
tion of these factors 
to plant growth may 
l)e most clearly per- 
ceived by first consid- 
ering them in their 
relation to each other 



14 



Uefinition — Nature. 
Fuiiftiuns. 



Oritjin . 



Properties 



Temperature. 
Air. 



jMoisture 



Soil ( 

(Chapters IV-XXXI.) 



Tillage 



Fertilizers 



Brief geological outline. 
Weathering of rocks. 
Accuuuilation of organic matter. 
Transfonnation of organic matter (nitrifi- 
cation and denitrification, etc.). 
Additions from atmosphere. 



Chemical. 



Physical. 



Weight 

Color 

Texture 

Capillarity. . 
Permeability 
Absorptive 
power. 



Classification 
of soils, on 
the basis of 
their prop- 
erties. 



I AVater tal)le. 

S( lurces I Hygroscopic moisture. 

Amounts 1 Kainfall. 

' Irrigation — Methoils. 

T^ . f Purpose and effects. 

^''"•""-" {Methods. 

,, ,. I Purpose. 

Conservation ..'^i , 
:dethods. 



Purpose and 

effects. 
Methods. 



Chemical. 

Physical. 

Bioloirical. 



Definition. 

Methods 
action. 



and effects of 



Chemical. 
Physical.. 
Biological. 



Clas- 
sifica- 
tion. 



1. According to constituents — 
a. Nitrogenous. 
h. Phosphoric. 
r. Potassic. 
(/. Other amendments. 

2. According to form — 
(I. Green ma- \ 

nures. [ Farmma- 
h. Animal ma- I nures. 

nures. J 
('. Commercial — c 1 a s s.i f y 
principal forms. 

(Study first the general theory of ferti- 
lizers according to above sc'heme and 
then consider in as much detail as may 
l)e deemed desirable different kinds of 
fertilizers, using Schedule A.) 



15 



Soil — Continued . . . 
(Chapters IV-XXXI.) 



Farm cnors 

(Chapters 
XXXIII.) 



Fcrtili/.or.'- 



Srhf<liilr A. 

Name. 
Uoj'ciiptiuii. 



rniiK-rtir.'^ 



C li (' III i ca 1 — 

composition, 
riiysical. 



. ; Kinds (if 
t'ertiliz- { 
ers. 



Tlace in classifications. 
Sources. 
Uses. 

rrcparation, care, and han- 
dling. 
Application. 

Effects . 



Economy 



Chemical. 

Physical. 

Biological. 

Extent of 

ductinn. 
V e c u n i a r y 

value. 



pro- 



Waste and ren- 
ovation. 



Washing. 

Transportation l)y wind and water. 
Leaching. 
Oxidation. 

Cnjpping — Rotation oi crops, systems of 
farming. 



XXXII 



Having considered in a general way the theory and prac- 
tice of plant production as related to the structure, physiology, 
and environment of the plants grown as farm crops, we come 
next to consider tlie production of different kinds of crops 
more in detail. 

Cereals — Wheat, oats. 

Grasses — Timothy, l)ronie grass. 

Legumes — Red clover, alfalfa. 

Tubers — Potatoes. 

Roots — Mangels. 

Sugar plants — Sugar cane, sugar 

beets. 
Fibers— Cotton, Hax, hemp. 
Stimulants— Tobacco, tea, coffee. 
Medicinal and aromatic plants — 

Ginseng, mint. 
Miscellaneous— Canaigre, peanuts. 

( Breeding, 
i Selection. 



Classification 

(The classification and 
the kinds of plants to be 
named under each class 
will vary according to 
circumstances.) 



Methods 
ment. 



if improve- 



16 



IXDI V 1 DC A I, FA KM 
CROPJS. 

(ChaptersXXXIV-LXI.) 

(The crops to be- .studied 

will Viiry accordiiii?; to 

looalitv and other eir- 

cumstaiices.) 



\'arieties 



Next (-tudy individual lami cmii^; acconliiig to tlie foUoW' 
iiig scheme: 

Name. 

Place in clah^silicatioii. 

Structure. 

Composition. 

Physiology. 

Botanical relations. 

f ('la.ssiHcation. 
I Improvement. 
Geographical distribution. 

Choice and preparation of soil. 

IManuring. 

Seeds (or other jiarts of jilantJ 
used for jilanting) — Selection— 
am( lunt — treatment. 

Planting. 

Cultivating. 

I'lace in rotation. 
Harvesting. 
Preservati<jn. 
Cses. 
Prej)aralion for use. 

Weeds .... 

Fungi 

Pacteria 

I n.sects 

Birds 

(Quadrupeds 



Cidtui 



< )bstructions to growth, 
preservation, or use. 



Means 
sion. 



>i repres- 



T'roduction. 
Marketing, 
llistorv. 



OUTLINE FOB, A COURSE OF LECTURES OR A TEXT-BOOK ON 

AGRONOMY. 

[The Ircluri's arc iiiletided U> cover '.I'.t hours.] 

Chapter 1. ( ienerai climatic c(jnditions. 

II. Plant food and growth. 

III. Air as a source of plant food. 

IV. The nature, functions, origin, an<l wasting of soils. 

V. Properties of soils, chemical and jihysical. Classifications, texture, com- 

IKjsition, and kinds of soils. 
VI. Physics of soils as related to plant growth ( capillarity, solution, diffusion, 
and osmosis). 
VII. Soil temperature. 
VIII. Relation of air to soil. 
IX. Soil water. 
X. Irrigation. 
XI. Improvement of soil through drainage. 
XII. Drainage methods. 

XIII. Conservation of soil moisture. 

XIV. Physical effects of tillage. 

XV. Chemical and biological effects of tillage. 



17 

('liai)t(^'r XVI. IMethocls of tillage. 
XVII. Methods of tillage. 
XVIII. Fertilizers— Methods and effi'cts of actiMii. 
XIX. Fertilizers — Cla-ssifieatiou ])y coiistitncnts an<l fcirin. 
XX. Sources and uses of nitrogen. 
XXI. Sources and uses of phosphoric acid. 
XXII. Sources and uses of potash. 
XXITI. Sources and uses of other amendments. 
XXIV. Practical advice on the use of connnercial fertilizers. 
XXV. II umns and green manuring. 
XXVI. Animal manures. (Jeneral statements. 
XXYII. Manures produced from various animals. 
XXVIII. Care, preservation, and application of manure. 
XXIX. Waste and renovation of soils. 
XXX. Rotation of crops— General statements. 
XXXI. Rotation of crops — Systems of fara)ing. 
XXXII. Farm crops — Classification, production; reasons for choice. 

XXXIII. Improvement of farm crops. 

XXXIV. Wheat — Structure, composition, and varieties. 
XXXV. Wheat — Culture, harvesting, and preservation. 

XXXVI. Wheat — Obstructions to growth, preservation, and use. 
XXXVJI. Wheat — ProcUiction, marketing, history. 
XXXVIII. Corn. 
XXXIX. Corn. 
XL. Corn. 
XLI. Corn. 
XLII. Rice. 
XLI II. Oats. 
XLIV. Barley and rye. 
XLV. Grasses. 
XLVI. Grasses. 
XLYII. Clovers. 
XLVIII. Pastures. 
XLIX. Silage. 

L. Forage crops: 
LI. Potatoes. 
LII. Potatoes. 
LIII. Root crops — ]\Iangels, beets, turnips. 
LIV. Sugar plants — Sugar beets. 
LV. Sugar plants — Cane, sorghum, etc. 
LVI. Fiber plants— Cotton. 
LVII. Fiber plants— Cotton. 
LYIII. Fiber plants — Flax, h.inp, jute, ramie, sisal, etc. 
LIX. Stimulants — Tobacco, tea, coffee. 
LX. Medicinal and aromatic plants. 
LXI. Miscellaneous plants — Buckwheat, broom corn, iieanuts, hops, canai- 
gre, etc. 
[The order of discussion of the different crops will be the same as in the case of 
wheat. The details to be given for each crop will vary with the importance of the 
crop in any region.] 

26777— No. 127—03 2 



18 

PRACTICUMS OR LABORATORY WORK IN AGRONOMY. 

[The practicums are intended to cover 33 laboratory periods, i. e., (>(i hours.] 

1. Determination of specific gravity of soils. 

2. Determination of volume weight of soils. 

3. The power of retaining moisture in the soil in its highest degree of looseness. 

4. The power of retaining moisture in the soil when compacted. 

5. Kate of percolation of water through soils. 

6. Rate of percolation of air through soils. 

7. Effect of mulches upon evaporation of water from suils. 

8. Behavior of soils toward gases. 

9. Capillary attraction in soils. 

10. Determination of cohesion in soils. 

11. Mechanical analysis of soils. 

12. Mechanical analysis of soils. 

13. Study of root systems of principal crops. 

14. Study of root systems of principal crops. 

15. Study of root systems of principal crops. 

16. Study of varieties of corn in held. 

17. Scoring ears of I'orn. 

18. Study of effect of fertilizers on one or more crops in fall. 

19. Study of effect of fertilizers on one en- more crops in early spring. 

20. Study of effect of fertilizers on one or more crops near harvest. 

21. Study of varieties of wheat in sheaf and by sample. 

22. Study of varieties of wheat in sheaf and by sample. 

23. Study of varieties of wheat in field. 

24. Study of varieties of oats or other grain in sheaf and by sanii>k'. 

25. Study of varieties of oats or other grain in field. 

26. Study of varieties oi potatoes by sample. 

27. Study of varieties of potatoes in field. 

28. Study of varieties of grasses and forage crops in field in fall. 

29. Study of varieties of grasses and forage crops in field in early spring. 

30. Study of varieties of grasses and forage crops near harvest in field. 

31. Study of varieties of grasses and forage crojjs l)y sample and iii\'i>arafion of 

abstracts of station experiments on climatic and soil conditions and upon 
quality and yield. 

32. Study of varieties of grasses apd forage crops by sample and preparation of 

abstracts of station experiments on ('limatic; and soil conditions and upon 
quality and yield. 

33. Study of varieties of grasses and forage crops by sample and ])re2)aration of 

abstracts of station experiments on climatic and soil conditions and uj)on 
quality and yield. 

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF COURSES IN AGRONOMY. 

ALABAMA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE. 

In the Alabama Polytechnic Institute live four-year courses lead to 
the degree of ])achelor of science. These courses are chemistry and 
agriculture, civil engineering, electrical and mechanical engineering, 
general course, and pharmacy. P^lementary agricultuiv (])reeds of live 
stock) is taught in the third terui of the freshman year in all courses. 
Agriculture is an electi^'e throughout the sophomore year of the 



19 

course in civil cMuinccriiiL;', iuul is i-(M|uirc(l (lii'ouiiliout the sopliomorc 
and junior yctirs of the course in chemistry and aoiicuUure. Tliis 
last coui'S(\ then, may 1h^ considered the aj4ricultural course of the 
Polytechnic Institute. The student in this course devot(\s a})out one- 
fifth of his time to EnoJish, history, and economics; alK)ut two-lifths 
to pure science and two-tifths to applied sciences and teclmical trainini;'. 

Admission to the four-year courses is ))y examination or b}' certifi- 
cate from schools having approved courses of study. Applicants for 
admission must be at least 15 years of age, and, if admitted by 
examination, nuist be (pialified to pass satisfactory^ examinations in 
(1) geogi aphy and history of the United States; (2) Eng-lish, including 
grannnar, comi)osition, reading, and English classics; and (3) mathe- 
matics, including arithmetic and algebra through quadratic equations. 
"Those applicants who desire to continue the study of Latin should 
be (jualitied to pass a satisfactory exauiination in Latin grammar and 
the first two books of Ca;sar in addition to the alcove subjects." 

The course in agronomy is given during the second and third terms 
of the sophomore years. It is preceded ])y a trwo-hour course in ani- 
mal hus])andry during the third term of the freshman 3'ear, a two-hour 
course in dair3Mng during the first term of the sophomore year, and a 
three-hour course of lectures and one laboratory exercise per week in 
general chemistry during the first term of the sophomore year, and is 
followed by courses in systematic and stiuctural botany (lectures and 
laboratory), plant physiology, and agricultural chemistr3\ 

The course in agricultural chemistry is given in the senior \'ear and 
""consists of lectures on chemistr}^ in its application to agriculture 
(two per week, during second and third terms), and includes a thorough 
discus^sion of the origin, composition, and classification of soils, the 
composition and growth of plants, the sources of plant food and how 
oljfained, the improvement of soils, the manufacture and use of fer- 
tilizers, the chemical principles involved in the rotation of crops, the 
feeding of live stock, and the various operations carried on by the 
intelligent and successful agriculturist."' During the same periods the 
students do laboratory work in quantitative anal3'sis six hours per 
week. The principal reference books used in agricultural chemistr3' 
are Johnson's How Crops Grow and How Crops Feed, Lupton's Ele- 
mentary Principles of Scientific Agriculture, Johnson and Cameron's 
Elements of Agricultural Chemistrv, Storer's Agriculture, scientific 
journals, reports of the United States Department of Agriculture, and 
the l)ulletins and reports of the various domestic and foreign agricul- 
tural departments and stations. "The laboratories, which are open 
from 9 a. m. to 5 p. m, during six da3^s in the week, are amply supplied 
with everything necessar3' for instruction in chemical manipulation." 

Instruction in agronomy is given by the professor of agriculture. 
"In the second term of the sophomore j^ear the following subjects are 



20 

studied: Soils — chemioal and physical properties, defects, and means 
of improvement; the control of water, including* means of conserving 
moisture in times of drought; terracing, underdrainage, and open and 
hillside ditches; objects and methods of cultivation; agricultural 
implements; rotation of crops; and improvement of plants by cross- 
ing, selection, and culture. The third tei'ni of the sophomore yenv is 
devoted to the staple crops produced in Alabama, to forage plants 
adapted to the South, and to plants valuable for the renoA'ation of soils. 
The more important crops are treated with reference to varieties, soil 
and fertilizer requirements, methods of planting and cultivating, and 
uses." In all classes there are mid-term examinations and term-end 
examinations. 

Two hours per week are devoted to lectures, in which the number 
of students ranges from 10 to 25, and two afternoons per week are 
given up to farm practice, during which time the classes are divided 
into sections of from 6 to 9 students. A part of the tield work is con- 
ducted l)y the professor of agriculture and a part is in charge of an 
assistant in agriculture: 

In every class the student is encouraged to independent thought on 
agricultural problems rather than to depend on " rules of thuml)," so 
that he may be prepared to adapt his practice in after j-ears to changed 
conditions of soil, climate, capital, market, etc. An effort is made to 
keep before the student the difference between the widely applicable 
})rinciples on which every rational system of farming rests and the 
details that vary with changing conditions. The conditions of soil, 
climate, etc., prevailing in different parts of Alabama are kept con- 
stantly in view. As far as limited time allows, attention is directed 
to agricultural literature now accunuilating so rapidly in this and in 
foreign countries, to the end that in future years the student may 
know where and how to seek the information that he may need. 

Among the reference books and other literature used by students in 
agronomy are Soils and Crops of the Farm, Morrow and Hunt; For- 
age Plants, Shaw; The Fertility of the Soil, Rol)erts; Corn Culture, 
Plumb; The Physics of Agriculture, King; other recent American 
works on agriculture; bulletins of the United States Department of 
Agriculture and of the experiment stations in the different States, and 
a number of farm journals. 

Lectures in agronomy are given in the main building in a class room 
provided with chairs and arm rests for 60 students, two sides of the 
room being occupied by cases for specimens. Three small barns and 
a gin room serve partly as laboratories for students when engaged in 
indoor work. Plats on the experiment-station farm showing the effect 
of fertilizers, methods of cultui-e, etc. and collections of varieties are 
used as object lessons for students. 



21 

The followino- oxhibits Avill yivo an idea of tlu^ naturo and scopo of 
the examinations r(M|uir(>d in auiononiy and ol' (he notes taken by 
students in the tield: 

IVMOIUT No. 1. 

EXAMINATIONS IN AGRONOMY. 

J^lrdinlnalion in h('(jimi!rui (ii/rdiioiiii/, second Icnii, sapliotnorc //car. 

I. (d) 111 wliat kind of weather and at what tiiiu' of year can wetter soils he safely 
plowed than under other conditions? p]xplain. {I>) Does a clay or a sandy soil 
contain more moisture when plants begin to wilt? Explain. 

II. («) Discuss the importance or nonimportance of the hygroscopic power of 
soils, {hj Discuss the practicability or otherwise of determining what fertilizers to 
apply by an analysis of the soil. 

III. Discuss caiiillarity in the soil (direction of movement, favoralile conditions, 
effect of slight rain after long drought, etc.). 

IV. Explain fully the effect of cultivation on the moisture in the different layers 
of soil. 

V. Discuss fully the size and use of the roller and its effects on the soil, and state 
conditions when it should be used. 

VI. Discuss the general direction for ditches, methods of making junctions, and 
draw cross section illustrating (a) carrying canal, (6) shallow hillside ditches, {(■) 
open drainage ditch. 

VII. {(() Discuss grades for open tile drains, {h) INIake drawing of homemade 
level and show how used (r) in making a terrace and (d) in giving a uniform grade 
to bottom of a ditch. 

VIII. Irrigation, (rr) Give three commonest sources of water in order of cheap- 
ness, {h) What advantages in furrow system over flooding system? (c) What 
levels would head ditches follow and how would nature of soil influence the grade 
of the rows? 

IX. Discuss fall versus spring plowing in the Gulf States. 

X. (ft) Give a three-year rotation for cotton farm, showing why the crops should 
follow in the order stated, (b) Outline a rotation that will put half the land in 
cotton each year, (r) Construct a five-year rotation for a mixed cotton and stock 
farm in t-he central prairie region of Alabama, stating when each crop is planted. 

E.niiiilrKiiioii in (Kjrovomi/ {forage p!(iiift<), tliird fenn, soplioinorc yenr. 

I. [a) What advantages has fall sowing of grasses and clovers over spring sowing? 
(' ) Mention three legumes that can not be sown in fall and give best month for 
sowing each of the three. 

II. (a) Compare early versus late cutting of hay. {h) When cut red clover? 

III. Give means of distinguishing small grains of oats, wheat, barley, and rye. 

IV. Discuss Texas blue grass. 

V. Discuss redtop. 

VI. Discuss white clover. 

VII. Discuss culture and uses of rape plant. 

VIII. Give time of sowing, amount of seed, soil recjuirements, and u.ses of melilotus. 

IX. Velvet beans— uses and culture. 

X. Hairy vetch — discuss best mixtures of this with ot iier seed for given conditions. 



22 

Exhibit No. 2. 
S5TtIDENTS' FIELD NOTES. 

Notes on varieties of corn. 



Hickory King 



Shaw 



Arnol(l.= 



Experiment 
Station Yel- 
low. 



Cocke 



Moshv 



Te n n e ssee 
White. 



Nnmber of ears 
and nnbbins 
per lUO stalks. 



Ears. 

48 



90 



IMstanoe from ground 
to lower ear. 



yubbiii.'<. I Ft.IiiK. 
f 2 i) 



Aver- 
age dis- 
tance 
from 
ear to 
ground. 



Ft. Ins. 
■A 2 



8 5 
4 4 
4 



Ft. Ins 
3 2 



8 1. 
I. 

I. 

2 L 
. 
1. 

3 I. 



4 6 
4 6 
.5 4 



Per- 
centage 
of ears 
below 

hori- 
zontal 

line. 



Ft. Ins. 

> 2 9i 

:• 4 9 

i 4 



Tipcov- 
ered by 
shuck, 
5; tip 
ex- 
posed, 
0. 



4.5 



Remarks. 



/Stalks very small 
\ and .very early. 

I Medium light and 
late; ears above 
m e d i II m i n 
length. 



., c: fLat e ; ni ed ium 
'■ it ears. 



Above medium 
height; medium 
early. 

ISmall stalk, long, 
l slender ears; 
[ early. 



Medium or late; 
prolific and well 
filled. 



(Tall stalks, large 
•j ears; late to me- 
[ dium. 



(Small e;iri'(i; pro- 
l lific. 



JVtile.'i nil rnrielii'.y of cotton. 



I. Bolls, position. 



II. 8talk.. 



TIT. Bolls 



Cotton. 



) Field No. (Row) (i. 
(Variety : Dick.Mon Cluster. 

[Cluster, seniieluster, noneluster: Cluster. 
iTenninal or nonterminal, 

fNuniber: 2 to 5, orenerally 2 to 3. 
Base limbs .J Length: Medium. 

ilnternodes: Medium. 
Upper liml)S — ^Length: Short. 
Compactness: Erect. 
Height: Medium. 

rlO. 
Weight ]10. 

ilO. 

Size (field estimate), 

Point: Both acute and blunt. 
Adherence, 



28 



IV. Sci'd 



Y. EarliiiesH. 



I'l'rceiitau;^ of lint, 

NW'i^'ht riO. 

l5(). 

Shajie ami size, 

Color, 

I^'ield estimate: A'ery early. a b c .\vonisro. 

Number open 54 liil 'Al 8S 

Numl)ergro\vn ..^ .5 g ^i 10 
Numl)er younger 



15 l)est i>lantH. 



Total 57 85 52 48 

Percentage of bolls open, 79. 

,TT 71 1-.- (Selected plants (field estimate); percentage, 100. 

Vl. rroliticacv \ ^ ^ 

[li best i)lants (ofnce), 

VII. Lint (field estimate), 

THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF 

ILLINOIS. 

The colleo'o of ag'i'iculturo if< one of the six colleges of the University 
of Illinois. Candidates for admission to the college of agriculture are 
required to have the same number of high school credits as candidates 
for admission to other colleges of the university. 

This numl)er is -iO credits at the present time, but it will l)e increased 
to 42 credits in 1905. By the term credit is meant the work in a sub- 
ject continuously pursued with dailj' recitations through one of the 
three terms of the high school year; or, in other words, the work of OO 
recitation periods of forty minutes each, or, the equivalent in labora- 
tory or other practice. Of the total num))er of credits rec[uired for 
admission, 9 must be in English, T in mathematics, and in science 
and history. For graduation from the college of agriculture, students 
are required to have obtained 130 university credits. B3' the univer- 
sity credit is meant a class period a week for one semester, each class 
period presu]3posing two hours'- preparation l)y the student, or the 
equivalent in laboratory, shoji, or held practice. The work for 79 
credits is prescribed as follows: 



15 credits in agronomy. 
5 credits in thremmatology. 
2i credits in animal hus])andry. 
2^ credits in dairy husl)andry. 
8 credits in horticulture. 
15 credits in chemistry. 
5 credits in geology. 

Of the remaining 56 credits required for graduation at least 4imust 
be chosen in animal hus])andry or dair}^ husbandry, 5 in natural his- 
tory, 3 in English, and 25 in technical agriculture. The remaining 
credits ma}^ ])e obtained from any subjects offered in the university 



5 credits in botany. 

5 credits in zoology. 

2 credits in economics. 

6 credits in rhetoric. 

5 credits in military science. 

3 credits in physical training. 



24 

which the student is prepared to take, provided only that two ^^earsof 
foreign language nnist l)e taken in the university if not offered for 
admission. A thesis is also required for graduation for Avhieh from 5 
to 10 credits will he allowed according to the nature of the subject. 

The students in the college of agriculture are given courses in Eng- 
lish or other languages in the college of literature and arts; courses in 
chemistry, physics, geology, botany, zoology, mathematics, etc., in the 
college of science; blacksmithing, carpentry, etc., in the college of 
engineering, the work of the college of agriculture being devoted to 
the sul)ject of agronomy, animal husbandry, dairy husbandry, horti- 
culture, and veterinary science, or, in other words, to the subjects in 
technical agriculture. 

In the department of agronomy 15 courses are offered (not including 
the courses in farm mechanics), which are descrilxxl briefly in the fol- 
lowing excerpts from the college catalogue: 

The semester, the days, and the class period or ])eriods during which each coarse 
is given, and the number of credits per semester for which the course counts are 
shown after each course, as follows: The semester is indicated by the Roman numer- 
als I, II; the days, by the initial letters of the days of the week; the class period 
or periods (of which thee are nint^ each day, numbered consecutively from 1 to 9), 
by Arabic figures; and the amount of credit, by Arabic ligures in parentheses. For 
example, the al)breviations I; M., W., F.; 1; (3) are to be read first semester, Mon- 
day, Wednesday, and Friday, first period, three credits. 

1. Drainage and irrigation. — Location of drains and irrigation conduits, leveling, 
digging, laying tile and pipes, filling, and subsequent care; cost of construction and 
efficiency; sewers for the disposal of waste w"ater from farm buildings and the sew- 
age from kitchen and toilet; farm water pipes, pipe and thread cutting. Class work, 
laboratory and field practice. I; first half; daily; 6, 7; (2^). 

5. Farm crops — QualiUi and improreinent. ^Judging of corn (see Exhil)it ?>, j). 30 ) and 
oats, wheat grading, methods of improving (juality, shrinkage of grain, care of stored 
crops to prevent injury and loss. Class and lal)oratory work. I; first half; daily; 
6, 7 (or 3,4); (2J). 

6. Farm crops — Germination and grovlh. — Vitality and germination of seeds, pres- 
ervation of seeds, methods of seeding; conditions of plant growth; peculiarities of 
the different agricultural plants in respect to structure, habits, and requirements for 
successful growth; enemies to plant growth; weeds and weed seeds, their identifica- 
tion and methods of destruction; fungus diseases, such as smut of oats and wheat, 
and blight, scab, and rot of potatoes, methods of prevention; insects injurious to 
farm crops and how to combat them. Class room, laboratory, and field work. II; 
first half; daily; 6, 7; (2^-). 

7. Special crops. — A special study of farm crops taken up under an agricultural 
outline — grain crojis, root crops, forage crops, sugar and fiber crops — their history 
and distribution over the earth, methods of culture, cost of production, consumption 
of products, and residues or by-products. Class work, supplemented by practical field 
work and a study of the results of previous experiments, such as detasseling corn, 
injury to roots of corn by cultivation, selection and breeding of corn and other crops, 
with special reference to practices which apply directly to Illinois conditions. 
Students will have an excellent opportunity to study the work of the Agricultural 
experiment station. II; daily; 1,2; (5). Required: Agronomy 2, '% 6. 

8. Field experiments. — S^iecial work l)y the students conducted in the field. This 
work consists in testing varieties of corn, oats, wheat, potatoes, and other farm crops; 



25 

nictliods of planting corn, noedinfj grains, grassen, and otlior forago orojis; onltnro of 
corn, potatO(.\s, and sugar beets; practice in treating oats and wheat for smut and 
jiotatoes for seal) and studying the eflV-cts upim the crops; cond)ating chinch bugs 
and other injurious insects. Other practical experiments may be arranged with the 
instructor. Special opportunities will be given to ailvanced students of high class 
standing to take up experiments, under assignment and diivction of the instructor 
in farm crops, on certain large farm.s in the State, arrangements having lieen made 
with the farm owners or managers for such experiments. II, second half, and sum- 
mer vacation; daily; arrange time; (22 to T)). 
Required: Agronomy 7, 12. 

9. Sail pliifslcs (oxl vfatKigemciti. — This course is designed to prejiare the student 
better to understand the effects of the different methods of treatment of soils and the 
influence of these methods upon moisture, texture, aeration, fertility, and produc- 
tion. It comprises a study of the origin of soils, of the various methods of soil for- 
mation, of their mechanical composition and classification; also soil moisture and 
means for I'onserving it, soil texture as affecting capillarity, osmosis, and diffusion, 
as affected by plowing, harrowing, cultivating, rolling, and cropping; of the wasting 
of soils by washing; fall or spring plowing and drainage as affecting moisture, tem- 
peratures, and root development. The work of the class room is supplemented by 
laboratory work, comprising the determination of such questions as specific gravity, 
relative gi'avity, water-holding capacity and cai^illary jjower of various soils; also the 
study of the physical effects of different systems of rotation and of continuous crop- 
ping with various crops, and the mechanical analysis of soils. I; daily; 1, 2; (5). 

Required: Physics 1, 3 (first semester's work), and Agronomy, 2. 

10. Spechd problems in Koil plu/sics. — This work is intended for students wishing to 
specialize further in the study of the physical properties of soils, and will include the 
determinaton by electrical methods of the temperature, moisture, and soluble salt 
content of various soils under actual field conditions; effect of different depths of 
plowing, cultivation, and rolling on soil conditions; effect of different methods of 
preparing seed beds; the physical questions involved in the formation and redemp- 
tion of the so-called "alkali," "barren" or "dead dog" soils,- and of other peculiar 
soils of Illinois. II, or summer vacation; daily; arrange time; (5). 

Required: Agronomy 9. 

11. Soilbacfniologi/. — A study of the morj)hology and activities of the bacteria which 
are connected with the elal )oration c if plant food in the soil, or which induce changes of 
vital importance to agriculture, with regard to the effects of cropping and tillage ujion 
these organisms, and with special reference to the study of those forms which are 
concerned with the formation of nitrates and nitrites in the soil and with the accumu- 
lation of nitrogen by leguminous crojis. Class room and laboratory work. 11; dailv; 
6, 7; (5). 

Required: Botany 5; Cliemistry 3b, 4. 

12. FerliUzerK, rotations, and fertility . — The influence of fertility, natural or supplied, 
upon the yield of various crops; the effect of different crops upon the soil and upon 
succeeding crops; different rotations and the ultimate effect of different systems of 
farming upon the fertility and productive cajjacity of soils. The al)ove will be sup- 
plemented by a laboratory study of manures and fertilizers, their composition and 
their agricultural and conmiercial value; of soils cropped continuously with different 
crops and with a series of crops; of the fertility of soils of different types, or classes 
from different sections of Illinois. II; daily; 1, 2; (5). 

Required: Chemistry 13; Agronomy 6, 9. 

13. InreMigation of the fertilitij of spjecial soils. — This course is primarily designed to 
enable the student to study the fertility of those special soils in which he may be 
jjarticularly interested, and to become familiar with the correct principles and 
methods of such investigations. It will include the detennination of the nature and 



26 

quantity of the elementH of fertility in the soils investigated, the effect upon varions 
crops of different fertilizers adde<l to the soils, as determined by pot cultures, and, 
where possible, by plat experiments. This work will be supjilemented by a system- 
atic study of the work of experiment stations and experimenters along these lines of 
mvestigations. I, II; arrange time; (2 to 5). 
Required: Agronomy 12. 

14. History of agriculture. — Its development and practice, with particular regard to 
the agriculture of those nations which have contributed most to agricultural progress, 
including a sketch of the earliest agricultural practices as illustrated bj^ the agricul- 
ture of the Egyptians, the Jews, the Chinese, and other ancient peoples; followed by 
a study of the development of Roman agriculture and its influences upon the practices 
in other nations; a consideration of the beginnings and systems of British agriculture 
with regard to their influence upon social conditions; and, finally, the development 
of modern agriculture with special reference to that of England, (lermany, France, 
and the United States. I, second half; daily; 8; {2i). 

15. Comparative agriculture. — Influence of locality, climate, soil, I'ace, customs, laws, 
religion, etc., upon the agriculture of a country, and incidentally upon its people. 
One crop only, and its effect, as rice; Indian corn in American agi'iculture and affairs. 
Varj'ing conditions under which the same crop may be produced, as wheat. Statis- 
tical agriculture. Influence of machinery and of land titles, whether resting in the 
government, in landlord, or in occupant. Relation of agriculture to other industries 
and to the body politic. Lectures. 11; F; 4; (1). 

Required: Two years of University work. 

16. German agricultural readings. — A study of the latest agricultural experiments 
and investigations published in the (ierman language, special attention being given 
to soils and crops. The current nxnnbers of German journals of agricultural science 
will be required and used as a text. This course is designed to give the student a 
broader knowledge of the recent advances in scientific agriculture, and, incidentally, 
it will aid him in making a practical ajiplication of a foreign language. It is recom- 
mended that it be taken after Agronomy 12. II; .M., W.; 4; (2). 

Required: Two years' work in (lerman. 

17. S}>ecial work in drairuige aud uiaclum'ni. — Studi'iits may arrange for si)ecial work 
in any of the lines covering drainage or farm macliiuery, either in the second 
semester or the summer. (22 to 5. ) 

18. Inrestigatiou and Ihexis. — This course varies in the subject matter of study, 
according to the departnu^nt in which theses are written. The work is under the 
direction of the head of thi' de])ai-tm('nt. 1, II; arrange timi"; (5 to 10). 

The offices, class rooms, and la))oi'!it()rios of the dopartmont of 
agronom}" are housed in the aoricultural ])uildino- (PI. I), which was 
recentlj^ completed at a cost of $150,000. It consists of four separate 
structures built around an open court and connected by corridors. 
The main building- is 2J:S feet long- and from 50 to 100 feet wide, and 
three stories high. The other three buildings are -15 by 116 feet, and 
two stories high. These Imildings are of stone and l)rick, roofed with 
slate, and contain, all told, 113 rooms and a total Hoor s})ace of nearly 2 
acres. An adjacent glass structure includes a photographic laboratory 
and a pot-culture laboratory for the department of agronomy. Sev- 
eral acres of land near to the agricultiu-al l)uilding-s are used for 
instruction in agronomy, chiefly In' 'means of student experiments. 

Aside from the ^^ork in farm mechanics, the department of agrononw 
includes four principal divisions, ^'iz, soil fertility, soil physics, soil 



hactci'ioloii'v, aiul t'iirni croi^s. SoNcral courses of iiisti-uclioii arc 
otl'erod in each of llu'se (li\ isioiis, and in each case in.struction is given 
by the la))oratorv method, as well as by text-books, leetiircs, and 
refei-enee readinas. 'IVo laboratories are provided for the work in 
soil fertility. One of these is used for the analysis of soils, fertilizers, 
and manures; for the determination of the elements of plant food 
contained in plants and plant products, and for the preparation of soils 
for ])ot culture exp(n"iments, which include the use of sand cultures, 
water cultures, and soil cultures, with the addition or elimination of 
any or all of the diti'erent elements of plant food (PI. Ill, tig. 1). 
The second is the pot-culture laborator}- (PI. Ill, tig. 2), which is 
located in the greenhouse near the agricultural building, and in which 
the pot-culture experiments ai'e carried on ])y the student as a part 
of his regular laboratory practice. The soil fertility analvtical laljora- 
tory is provided with desks for 18 students' places, each desk being 
made double, so that by working two sections 36 students can be 
accommodated. All apparatus necessary' for the analysis of soils, fer- 
tilizers, etc., is provided, including analytical balances, digestion 
furnaces, distillation apparatus, glass and porcelain ware, etc. The 
laboratory is provided with a hood under which operations which 
give off i)oisonous or disagreeable fumes or odors are performed. The 
desks are piped for gas, compressed air, vacuum and water, and pro- 
vided with sinks and waste pipes. The fertility pot-cidture lal)ora- 
tor}' is provided with suitable tal)les and with several hundred glazed 
pots of different sizes suitable for pot-cidture experiments. Most 
of the water used in the pot-ciUture experiments is drawn from a 
■iOU-barrel cistern, which is kept full of exceedingly pure soft water 
collected from the slate roof of th(> agricultural building, which is a 
(juarter of a mile distant from the central heating plant of the uni- 
versity, and hence is verv free from coal smoke, etc., from the chim- 
neys. For special purposes, distilled water is provided and, when 
necessary, nitrogen-free water is used. 

The soil physics laboratory (PL IV, tig. 1) is provided with a suffi- 
cient nmnber of desks to allow 24 students to work at one time, and, 
by running two sections, 48 students can be acconnnodated. This 
laboratory is well equipped with the apparatus necessar}' for stud3'ing 
the physics of soil, including centrifugal machines and shaking appa- 
ratus us(k1 in mechanical analyses (tig 1), microscopes, balances, 
compacting apparatus, apparatus for determining the water content, 
absorptive capacit}^, water-holding power, and specific gravity of soils; 
s(^veral electrical instruments for the determination of temperature, 
moisture, and solu])le salt-content of soils; a 3-horsepower electric 
motor with a lino shaft, counter shaft, belting, etc.; elutriators, fur- 
naces, sieves, and nuich other general apparatus. The laboratory is 
also provided with a side table, hood, large drying oven, and store- 



28 



room. For the*«work in farm drainago the department of agronomv 
is provided with several ,surve3'or.s*' leveling instruments, chains, and 
tapelines, and all necessary tools for running ditches and laying tile. 
Students are given a consideral)le amount of practice in surveying- 
systems of drainage, running levels, digging ditches, and laying tile. 
Two lal)oratories are provided for the study of soil l)acterioIogy, 
although one of these is also used during part of the year for begin- 
ning students in general bacteriology. Thirty-two student places 
are provided for. The laboratory is equipped with incubators, micro- 




Fiii. ]. — Centrifuge, shaker, anil electric iimtor used in ineclianical analysis of soils. 

scopes, autoclaves and other sterilizing apparatus, balances, and other 
materials needed for bacteriological work, including staining solutions, 
chemicals, media, etc. The hood tables and the tile-top side tables 
are provided with steam baths, gas, air, Aacuum, and water pipes, 
and waste sinks. Adjoining the laboratory are a store room, an 
incubating room, and an animal room with cages for keeping animals 
under experiment. 

Two laboratories ai'e provided for the work in farm ci'ops (PI. IV, 
tig 2), one of which has 36 student places, and the other 24 places, 



U. S. Dept. of Agr,, Bui. 1 27, Office of Expt. Stations 



Plate I. 




U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expl. Stations 



Plate II 




Fig. 1.— University of iLLiNOib— Class in Agronomy bTuuYiNO Root Development 

OF Corn. 




Fig. 2.— University of Illinois— Class in Agronomy Collecting Samples of Soil. 



U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt. S+ations. 



Plate III. 




Fig. 1 . — University of Illinois— Soil Fertility Laboratory for Analysis and 
Synthesis of Soils and Fertilizers. 




Fig. 2.— University of Illinois— Class in Agronomy in Pot Culture Laboratory. 



U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate IV. 




Fig. 1. ^University of Illinois— Soil Physics Laboratory. 





,'> 


i 


I 
i 


lb : ; 


liil li_ 


k.'. - 


"^ ^-^^1^'' r\-.^\«L 


MWMHt».iiil!iMgMM^B| 


■. >i.aaiui^ 


t.:3fi^i 


1 \m 


^ '.^^'^^SI^^^^^HH 


^^M^ 


i 


"■ 


-^^ 1 ..-J ■ 




w 

i 









Fig. 2.— University of Illinois— Farm Crops Seed Laboratory. 



2'.) 

mnkiiiii' it possible to have <)<> stiulciits in rariu crops at work at one 
tinio. These desks arc })rovi(led with a laroc miiiiher of drawers for 
different sainph's of oraiiis and ('([iiipjied with small uiieroscopes, tape 
measures, scales, o-erminating' ai)paratus, etc. Th(> lal)()ratory is pro- 
N'ided with one sid(^ case, containing 253 drawers for samples of corn 
of ten ears each, used in instruction in corn judging- and the stud}^ of 
varieties of corn. There are a large number of tilting l)ins, holding 
from i to H bushels of corn, and a large wall case contains six upright 
bins, reaching ncarh" to the ceiling of the room, each of several 
bushels' capacity, nsed for holding a supply of some (jf the stock grains 
used in the farm crops work. There are six large herbarium cases for 
preserving specimens of difierent farm crops and of w^eeds injurious 
to farm crops. There is also a cabinet provided with a large number 
of cases for a collection of insects injurious to farm crops. Adjoining 
the farm crops student laboratory is a large germinating room, aljout 
7 feet wide, and 20 feet long, with wide shelving around the walls, 
extending from near the floor to the ceiling, giving sufhcient space for 
several hundred germinators. Tliis room is provided with steam coils 
with valves so arranged that any number of coils can be used and the 
temperature of the room regulated as ma}^ be desired. A large elec- 
tric incubator is also provided for special germination studies. Besides 
the laboratory practice the students in farm crops carry on plat 
experiments imder field conditions, several acres being provided for 
this purpose and hand tools being provided for student use. 

Among the text-books and reference books most largely used in the 
course in soil fertility are Aikman's Manures and the Principles of 
Manuring, Voorhees's Fertilizers, Roberts's Fertilit}^ of the Land, 
Johnson's How Crops Feed, Sn3^der's Chemistry of Soils and Fertili- 
zers, Storer's Agriculture, Liebig's Agricultural Chemistry, Lawes 
and Gilbert's Reports on Agricultural Investigations at Rothamsted, 
and the bulletins and reports" of the United States Department of 
Agriculture and of the various State experiment stations. 

Among the books used in soil physics are The Soil and The Physics 
of Agriculture, by King; Rocks and Soils, by Stockbridge; Origin 
and Nature of Soils," by Shaler; and Land Drainage, l)y Miles. 

Books used in soil bacteriology are Manual of Bacteriology, by 
Sternberg; Conn's Agricultural Bacteriology; and Fischer's Structure 
and Functions of Bacteria. 

Among the books used in the study of farm crops are Johnson's 
How Crops Grow; Beal's Grasses of North America; Corn Plants, by 
Sargent; Plant Breeding, by Bailey; Weeds and How to Eradicate 
Them, by Shaw; and Storer's Agriculture. 

In addition to these books the librarv of the Fniversitv of Illinois 



« Twelfth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, Part I — Geology, pp. 
213-345. 



30 



contains several hundred A'olunios, journals, and pamphlets, in English, 
German, and French, relating in part or wholh' to the suliject of agron- 
omy. These are accessible to all of the students in the department, but 
are used more largely by students engaged in research work. 

Lal)()ratorY, lecture, or field notel^ooks are required to be kept by 
students in all courses in agronomy, and in most courses students are 
required to prepare two or three essays of from 1,000 to 5,000 words 
each during the semester. As a rule, preliminary examinations are 
given at the end of each month and a final examination at the close of 
the course. The student's standing or grade for the semester's work is 
based upon four factors: (1) Class records of recitations; (2) prelimi- 
nary examinations and written exercises; (3) lecture, laljorator^', or 
fiehl notebooks; and (-t) final examinations. 

During the past year al>out 2(M) students took work in courses in 
agronomy. , Advanced classes numbered from 12 to 25 students and 
lower classes contained from 30 to 75 students. Excursions are occa- 
casionally made by classes to examine soils, inspect drainage systems, 
to visit fields and other places of special interest and importance to 
the work of the classes. 

Aside from the help of several student assistants, there are six 
regular instructors in the department of agronomy. One ofi:*ers courses 
in soil fertilitv, another in soil physics, a third in farm drainage and 
irrigation, a fourth in soil bacteriology, and two other instructors 
give courses in fai'm crops. 

Exhibit No. 3. 

JUDGING CORN. 

Students in farm crops, when judging corn, are provided with stiff 
cardl)oard covers 5) by -if inches, in which special blank forms for 
scoring may be fastened. On the inside of the front cover is pasted 
Form A, giving standards for varieties, explanation of points, and 
rules to be used in judging. On the inside of the back cover and 
fastened to it by brass paper fasteners are forms B and C. Form B 
is used ])y the student in scoring a single ear of corn, and Form C for 
recording the corrected scores of several ears. 

FoK.M A. — Dh-cciions for scoring. 

STAXDAKDS FOR VARIETIES. 



Name of variety. 



Reid Yellow Dent . . . 

Golden Eagle 

Riley Favorite 

Learning 

Boone County White 

Silver Mine 

White Superior 

General 



Length of 
ear. 



TncliCK. 
10 
9 
y 
10 
10 
9 

8.5 
10-11 



Circumfer- 
ence of 
ear. 



7 

7 

7.5-8 



Proportion 

of corn to 

cob. 



Per cent. 
88 
90 
90 
88 
86 
90 
88 
88 



31 

K\[M, A NATION Ol' POINTS. 

1. (hiiforniity: T''^nifonn shapo, size, iiulentiition, and type of ears. 

2. Shape: Shape of ear sliould conform to variety type, usually eylinch'ical, i. e., of 
eijual t'ircuniference from butt to tiji. 

8. Color: Free from mixture and true to variety color. 

4. INIarket condition: Ripeness, soundness, ear lirm and well matured. 

5. Tip: Kernels tilled over the tip in regular manner. 

6. Butt: Kernels swelled about ear stalk, leaving deep depression when shank is 
removed. 

7. Kernel, uniformity: Uniform shape, size, and conformity to variety tyjjc. 

8. Kernel, shai)e: Wedge shaped, straight edges, and large germ. 

9. Length: Varies with the variety, measure. 

10. Circumference: Varies with the variety, measure. 

11. Space: Furrow between tops of rows of kernels. 

12. Proportion: Proportion of weight of grain to cob. Weight varies with variety. 

Kl'LES TO BE USED IN .lUnGING. 

1. The deficiency and excess in length of all ears not conforming to the standard 
for the variety shall be added together, and for every 2 inches thus ol)tained a cut 
of one point shall be made. In determining length, measure from the extreme tip 
to the extreme butt. 

2. The deficiency and excess in circumference of all ears not conforming to the 
standard of the variety shall be added together, and for every 4 inches thus ob- 
tained a cut of one jioint shall be made. Measure the circumference at one-third 
the distance from the butt to the tip of the ear. 

3. In determining the proi:)ortion of corn to cob, weigh every alternate ear in the 
exhibit. Shell and weigh the cobs, and subtract from weight of ears, giving the 
weight of corn. Divide the weight of corn by total weight of ears, giving the per 
cent of corn. For each per cent short of standard for the variety a half-point cut 
shall be made. 

4. In judging color, a red cob in white corn, or a white cob in j^ellow corn, shall 
be cut ten points. For one or two mixed kernels, a cut of one-fourth point; for three 
or four mixed kernels, a cut of one-half point; for five mixed kernels, a three-fourths- 
point cut; or for six or more mixed kernels, a one-point cut shall be made. Ker- 
nels missing from the ear shall be counted as mixed. Difference in shade of color, 
as light or dark red, white or cream color, must be scored according to variety 
characteristics. 

5. To determine the cut for space, the following rules can be applied if combined 
with the judgment of the student: For less than one thirty-second inch, ikj cut; for 
a furrow one thirty-second to one-sixteenth inch, one-half point; for more than one- 
sixteenth inch, cut one point. The looseness of kernels on the cob does not apply 
to space, but to maturity. The furrows or angle between the tops of the rows of 
kernels is the space between rows. 



Number of exhibit, 

Name of variety, . 

Length, . 

Circumference, . 

Proportion grain to cob. 



32 

Form B. — For indirhjwil sample. 
STUDENT'S REPORT JlDGINt; CORN. 

ST.\NDARD OF VARIETY, 



1. Uniformity 

2. Shape 

3. Cohir 

4. Market condition . 

5. Tips 

6. Butts 

7. Kernel iniiformity 

8. Kernel shape 

9. Length 

10. Circumference 

11. .Space 

12. Proportion 

Total 



Student's | Corrected Instruct- 
score. I score. or's score. 



REMARKS. 





Form C- 


-Fo 


r sei 


eral 


satnpl 


es. 










• 






















Points. 1 

10 '.. 

10 '.'. 
5 .. 
10 .. 

5 . . 
.'i . . 
10 .. 
.'i . . 

10 1.. 
20 .. 

100 .. 


2 

1" 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


1 
1617 

1 


18 


19 

■■ 
'■'. 


20 


2122 

1 


23 


24 


25 




-- 


\\ 




" 








3. Puritv of color 








.5. Filling out tips 

6. Filling out butts 












9. Length . 




10. Circuniference 

11. Space between rowst 

12. Proportion of corn to cob 

Total 


11 



















Exhibit No. 4. 
STUDENT "S LABORATOEY BLANKS IN SOIL PHYSICS. 

Fxpcrhnait So. I. 

MOISTITHE CAl'ir.b.VRY. 

Use sand, clay, loam, and iiravel as proviiled. 

1. Weigh carefully four drying pans. 

2. Place in one of each about 100 grams of each of the above soils. 

3. Weigh the pan and soil carefully. 

4. Spread out the soil to a thin layer In- shaking, and dry for twenty-tour hours at 
room temperature. 

5. Weigh and repeat the drying and Aveighing at intervals of four to five hours 
until a nearly constant weight is obtained. 

The loss of weight represents the amount of capillarj' water. 

Amount of caiMllary water found wan: Sand, ; clay, ; loam, ; 

gravel, . 

Define capillary water: . 



38 



J'J.ri>C7'linciil .\(i. 2. 

DETEKMINATION OF II VCKOSCOIMC MOISTfKE. 

Use the air-dried soils from experiment No. 1. 

1. Place about 10 grains of the air-dried soil in a tared i)oreelain crucible (a). 

2. Weigh the soil and cruci))le [b) and heat in the air bath at iOO to 110° C. for 
1 hour. 

3. Cool in a desiccator and weii^li rapidly to prevent absor[)tion of moisture from 
the air. 

4. Heat for a shorter time, cool, and weigh, repeating until the weight {<•) becomes 
constant. 

Calculation: The loss of weight, or h — r, equals the amount of hygroscoi>ic water 
in the sample taken, 
c — a equals the weight of water-free soil. 

Therefore -— - = per cent of hygroscopic water expressed on the basis of water-free 
soil. 



The per cent of hygroscopic water found was: Sand, 
-; gravel. 



■; ^'lay, 



-; loam, 



Define hygroscopic water: . 

From the results obtained in experiments 1 and 2 compute the percentage of cap- 
illary and total water in the soil, expressed on the basis of water-free soil. 

Total water content is (percentage) . Sand, ; clay, ; loam, ; 

gravel, . 



In adtlition to the capillary and hygroscopic water, the soil may contain, under 
some conditions, as immediately after a rain, a certain amount of free or gravita- 
tional water. This portion of tlie soil water is acted upon by the force of gravity, 
which causes it to percolate tlownward to the level of the ground water. 

Expa'imenl No. J. 

HILGAKJ)"S FLOCCULATION EXPERIMENT. 

Two students will work conjointly in this experiment. 

1. Into each of four beakers place about 1 gram of clay and add 200 cubic centi- 
meters of water. 
' 2. To beaker- 
No. 1 add 0.2 gram calcium hydrate=0. 1 per cent solution. 
No. 2 add 1 gram calcium liydrate=0.5 per cent solution. 
No. 3 add 2 grams calcium liydrate=l per cent solution. 
No. -1 add gram calcium hydrate=Control. 

3. With a stirring rod mix the contents of each Ijeaker thoroughly and then place 
a sample of each in a Nessler's cylinder and whirl in the centrifuge at the lowest 
speed and note the time required to completely precipitate each solution. 

4. Pour the contents of each cylinder back into the respective beaker, stir thor- 
oughly and set aside, observing occasionally to determine the time required for com- 
plete sedimentation in each case. 

Compare in each case the cylinders and beakers containing the different strengths 
of solution and the control and tabulate the results in the space l)elow. 



0.1 per cent solution , 
0.5 per cent solution 
1 per cent solution . . . 
Control 



Time to cen- Time to 
trifugate. sediment. 



Explain how the lime acts and clarifies the water: 
26777— No. 127—03 3 



34 

Expeririu'nt No. 4- 

EFFECTS OF LIME ON PLASTIC SOILS. 

Two students will work together as in experiment No. 3. 

1. Weigh out five 50-grani samples of the clay soil. 

2. To sample — 

No. 1 add 0. 5 per cent calcium hydrate. 
No. 2 add 1 per cent calcium hydrate. 
No. 3 add 5 per cent calcium hydrate. 
No. 4 add 10 per cent calcium hydrate. 
No. 5 add no calcium hydrate. 

3. Mix each sample thoroughly in a soil pan, and add just enough water to make 
plastic. 

4. Fill into molds in the form of sticks, using care to compress all samples to the 
same degree, and transfer to the oven and bake at 110° C for 4 to 5 hours. 

5. Test the strength of each stick of baked clay l)y supporting upon blocks and 

suspending weights until the clay is fractured. Note weight required in each case 

and till in results below: 

Grams. 

0. 5 per cent broke with 

1 per cent broke with 

5 per cent broke with 

10 per cent broke with 

Control broke with 

Explain the loss of i)lasticity due to the lime: . 

E.cpt'rhneid No. 5. 

DETERMINATION OF THE APPARENT SPECIFIC (iHAVITV 'iF soll.s. 

Use each of the four soils as in former experiments. 

1. Weigh carefully in empty and thoroughly cleaned soil tube (/()• 

2. Fil' it with one of the soils to be tested, Avhich must first be well pulverized if 
lumpy. In filling use the soil-compacting machine, allowing the weight to fall three 
times from the ti-inch mark upon each cupful <if sdil. Fill the tube to the crease 
near the top. 

3. Weigh the filled tul)e I'arefully (6). 

4. The area of the bottom of the tube is 20 S(|uare centimeters. From this com- 
pute the number of cubic centimeters of soil which it contains {(■). 

5. Determine the amount of hygroscopic moisture in a special sami)le of the soil, 
according to direction given under Experiment No. 2 ((/). 

Oticuhttions — 

/' — ( (I + (/)= weight of the given volume of soil. 

Therefore, '- — ' ' —weight of 1 cc. of soil=v<)lume weight of soil. 
c 

'';^}^^^^:^^^:^^^^=^^,^^reni specific gravitv. 
V olume weight of water 

I find the ai)parent specific gravity to be as follows: Sand, ; gravel, ; 

loam, ; i lay, . 

The volume weight or api^arent specific gravity of soils varies with the amount of 
packing, a freshly plowed field being much lighter per cubic foot than one com- 
pacted by rains or tramping. 

Explain the object of using the soil-compacting machine in this exi)eri- 
ment. , 



35 

E.rin'riiiinil \<i. 9. 

DETKKMINATIdN OI' TIIIC I'OWEK OF I.OOSK SOILS To lUCI'AlX .MOISTtKIC. 

1. Place 100 fiianis of the air-clrii'd soil in a In-akcr and add 100 ciiliic ccntinu'ters 
of distilled water. 

2. ^lix the soil and water thoroughly and rinse the soil upon a i)reviouHly sat- 
urated filter with a known amount of distilled water. Cover the top of the funnel 
with a glass plate to prevent evaporation. 

3. Catch the water which drains away, in a graduate, and deduct the amount of 
water caught from the total amount used. The remainder represents the amount 
retained by the soil. 

4. With a special sample of the soil used determine the p)er cent of hygroscopic 
water. 

Cdlctihdiim. — After finding the per cent of hygroscopic water, determine the 
amount of water-free soil in the 100-gram sample taken. Add the total amount of 
hygroscopic water to the capillary water retained and divide the sum ])y the weight 
of water-free soil, and the quotient will represent the per cent of water held, calcu- 
lated on the basis of water-free soil. 

Percent of water retained was: Sand, ; clay, ; loam, ; gravel, 



Why do you use air-dried soil in this experiment? 
Whv do vou moisten the filter? . 



Experiment No. 1-2. 

DETEKMIXATIOX OF THE KATE OF PERCOLATION OF AIR THROUGH SOILS. 

1. Fill the series pf tubes provided for this experiment with the tinely inilverized 
and sifted soils without compacting. 

2. Attach the tubes successively to the aspirator and note the length of time 
required to force or draw 10 liters of air through each sample of soil. The asj^irator 
weight must be started from the same height in each case. 

This experiment illustrates the relative aeration of soils, a question which is of 
importance in connection wdth the subject of the growth and development of the 
nitrifying and other bacteria of the soil concerned in the production of plant food. 

Time required for sand, ; gravel, ; loam, ; clay, . 



Experiment No. 13. 

CAPILLARY ATTRACTION OF SOILS. 

1. Close the lower eml of 12 of the large glass tubes by a piece of thin muslin tied 
firmly to the tubes. The tubes are then filled with the finely pulverized air-dried 
soils, which have been carefully sifted to remove all small stones. These tubes are 
to be filled with each soil — No. 1, by simply pouring the soil as loosely as possible 
into the tube; No. 2, by compacting the soil gently l)y tapping the lower end of the 
tube upon the bench, and No. 4, by compacting the soil by ramming with a rod. 
Care must be taken to compact the different soils to the same degree, both in the 
jarring and ramming, by jarring or ramming each tube the same number of times. 

The tubes are now placed in the supporting frame in such a manner that the lower 
ends shall dip one-half inch beneath the surface of a tray of water. 

The experiment is now ready for observation at intervals of twenty-four hours, 
when the height to which the water has risen is carefully measured and recorded- 



These observation's r^hould 
below. 



36 



taken <hiily fni- one week, and the resnhsare to be noted 



Day. 




Sand. Gravel. 


Loam. 


Clay. 


No.l. 


No.2. No.3. No.l. 


No.2. 


No.3. 


No.l. 


No.2. 


No.3. 


No.l. 


No.2. 


No.3. 


1 


/Rise 




1 . 


















\Total height 
























(Ri.se 






1 


















\Total height 






1 


















(Rise 






















\Total height 
























fRise 
























ITotal height 






















5 


fRise ! 




















(Total height 














1 










(Rise 






















6 


\Total height 
























/Rise 























' 


\Total height 























_ 




















To obtain accurate and reliable results it is necessary to use great care in filling the 
tubes, observing in particular that there are no places where the column of soil is 
unevenly packed or broken by coarse material w'hich will prevent the action of 
capillarity. 



Expenmcnt No. 14- 

EFFECT OP CULTIVATION OR DUST MULCHES ON EVAPOKATION OF WATER FROM SOILS. 

Fill all the tubes with the fine prairie soils, using the compacting machine. All the 
tubes should be filled to the same level. 

The conical leases of the tubes are then filled jmrtly full of water, so that the water 
shall stand at the same level in eacli. Determine the level with the S-shaped glass 
tube, and measure the deptli of water very accurately with the millimeter rule. The 
tubes are to be filled to the same level each day, and the amount of water added is 
carefully noted. This amount represents the water lost by evaporation. The tubes 
are treated as follows: Tube 1, control; tul)e 2, cultivated 1 inch; tube o, cultivated 
2 inches; tube 4, cultivated o inches; tube 5, cultivated 4 inches; tube 6, I'ultivated 
5 inches. 

The cultivation is performed each day by removing a layer of soil to the depth of 
cultivation used in the tube, and thoroughly mixing it, when it is replaced. 

Each tube has an area of 80 square centimeters = 12.4 square inches =5oitV .tts acre, 
and the results are to be computecj in tons of water evaporated per acre. The obser- 
vations are to be taken for seven davs and the results filled in Ijelow. 



]>epth of culture 

Total number grams . 
Ton.s per acre 



2 in. 



Experiment No. 15. 

EFFECT OF ARTIFICIAL MULCHES UPON EVAPORATION OF WATER FROM SOILS. 

This experiment is conducted in a similar manner to the last, excepting that the 
tubes are all filled to the same level and used as follows: No. 1, control; No. 2, 2 
inches sand; No. 3, 2 inches clay; No. 4, 2 inches muck; No. 5, 2 inches sawdust; 
No. 6, 2 inches cut straw. 





Control. 


Sand. 


Clay. 


Muck. Sawdust. 


Cut straw. 







































37 

MICHIGAN AGRICULTURAL. COLLEGE. 

The iiiiTicultural course in this colleo-c i-cMjuircs four or live years 
for completion, dep(Mi(lini>' on the preparation of th(^ candidates for 
admission, and hnids to the degree of hach(dor of science. The 
entrance^ examinations for the five-year course cov(m- the following- 
subjects: Arithmetic, geograph}', grammar, reading, spelling, pen- 
manship, and history of the United States. The holder of a teacher's 
c(>rtiticate. or eighth-grade diploma signed by a county conuiiissiner 
and issued by a school following the course of study outlined by 
the State superintendent of public instruction, will be admitted to 
the tive-year course Avithout (>xamination. For admission to the four- 
3^ear course, students must hold diplomas from high schools on an 
accredited list, or nuist, in addition to the reciuirements named abov^e, 
pass examinations in alge])ra through <[uadi'atic equations, in plane 
geometry, in elementary physi<-s. and in English. Candidates for 
admission nuist bi-ing testimonials of good character, and nnist be not 
less than fifteen years of age. 

The entrance reijuirements also presuppose that the applicant has the 
ability to harness and driv^e horses, to plow, harrow, mark corn ground, 
drill, operate the mower, reaper, and farm im[)lements generally, and 
to perform in a neat and workmanlike maimer the details of regular 
farm work. A failure to pass this examination will not exclude from 
the college; another opportunity will be provided at the close of the 
second year to pass on these studies. If the student then fails he will 
be required to remain at the college during the summer vacation 
between his second and third ^^ears, or to work for the same period on 
some farm approved by the professor of agriculture. He will receive 
his final examination on the subject at the l)eginning of the junior 
year. 

Since both the four-year and the five-year courses cover practically 
the same ground in agricultural subjects, only the four-year course 
will be described. 

The course is centered around instruction and practice in agriculture 
and horticulture and the sciences directly bearing upon successful 
farming. It includes the following credits: Agriculture, 60; agri 
culture or horticulture (elective), 59; anatomy, 10; bacteriology, 14; 
bacteriology (elective), 24; botany, ,56; botany (elective), 12; chem- 
istry, 42; chemistry (elective), 12; civil engineering, 6; civil engineer- 
ing (elective), 24; drawing, 10; economics (elective), 12; English, 59; 
English (elective), 12; entomology, 12; geology (elective), 10; Ger- 
man (elective), 60; history (elective), 12; horticulture, 51; hygiene, 4; 
mathematics, 29; meteorology (elective), 12; mditary science and tac- 
tics, 22; ph3'sics, 20; physics (elective), 12; political science, 10; psy- 
chology (elective), 12; sanitary science, 6; veterinary science, 5; vet- 
erinary science (elective), 86; zoology, 20; zoology (elective), 12. 



38 

Until the end of the lirst term, junior year, all four-year agricultural 
student.s pursue exactly the same studies, ])ut for the remaining tive 
terms they specialize in their technical work, electing- either agricul- 
ture, including dairying, stock-feeding, soil work, and farm crops, or 
horticulture, including vegetable culture, pomology, and floriculture. 

Instruction in agronomy is given by tlie ]irofessorof agronomy and 
one assistant in the second and third terms of the freshman year, the 
first and second terms of the sophomoi'e year, the second and third 
terms of the junior year, and the first, second, and third terms of the 
senior year, and is supi)lemented by insti'uction in ])otaiiy, l)acteriol()gy, 
and chemistry. 

The courses in bottmy (aside from those ])earing on forestry) for 
agricultural students include in th(^ freshman year sixty-one liours of 
structural l><)tany (gross anatomy and morphology of fruits and seeds) 
and thirty-three hours of systematic botany; in the sophomore j^ear 
ninety-six hours of ])lant histology (use of compound microscope, 
preparation of slides, use of reagents, study of plant anatomy, etc.) 
and thirty-three hours of ecology; one hundred and twenty-six hours 
of fungi of economic importance during the first term of the junior 
year; and forty-eight hours devoted to a study of grasses and weeds 
during the second term of the junior year. A senior elective in plant 
physiology has been announced. Instruction in botan}" is given in the 
botanical laboratory, a building 55 by -15 feet, two stories with attic 
and basement. The l)asement includes a fire-proof room containing 
the herbarium of about 75,000 specimens, a lavatory, and large work- 
room for the preparation and storing of specimens and ])oxes; the first 
floorcontainsadarkroom, two well-lighted rooms very fairly equipped 
for histological and physiological studies, and an office and la})oratory 
for the professor in charge; the second floor contains a large room for 
beginners in botany and for lectures, and a study and laboratory for 
the assistants; the garret has recently ])een fitted for use as necessity 
may require. 

Bacteriology is taught l)y the lal)oratory method, supi)lemented by 
such lectures as are necessary to direct the work. After one prelimi- 
nary lecture course and two laboratory courses (first, morphological 
and cultural bacteriology, and second, physiological bacteriology), the 
student may elect during the winter term of the senior year a labo- 
ratory course in bacteriology (ten hours per week) devoted to the 
biological consideration of the soil. This work is given in a new and 
well-equipped l)acteriological lal)oratory, which has just been completed 
at a cost (exclusive of equipment) of i^:^5,00(). 

Instruction in chemistry includes general elementary chemistry 
(ninety-eight hours during the first term of the freshman year), ([uali- 
tative anah'^sis (one hundi'ed and twenty hours during th(> second term 
of the freshman year), organic chemistry (ninety-eight hours during 



89 

the lirst tcnii of the soijliomorc year), iiiul !i<:;Tuiiltui"iil chomistry (sixt}' 
hours duiiiii.'; llic second term of the sophomore year and sixty hours, 
elective, (hiritii;- the second term of the senior yeai"). The courses in 
ag'ricultural ciiemistry includes the histor\" of aj^ricultural chemisti'v; 
the composition of plants, sources of the orf>-aniceonstituents of plants, 
how to increase their quantity and availability; the soil and the influ- 
ence of physical agencies on its chemical condition; the natui'e and 
action of the ash elements in phmt growth; mamires and maimrino-; 
intensive and extensive agriculture, and conservation of fertility; the 
chemistry of fodders and stock feeding, of ripening of fruits and 
grains. The aim in these lectures is to state and solve the chemical 
problems of the farm. The chemical laboratory building contains a 
lecture room for 150 students, analytical rooms fitted with evapoi'ating 
hoods and tables for 68 students, the professor's private laboratory and 
study, and a suite of rooms for students in metallurgy and quantitative 
chemical analysis, and is well equipped with chemical apparatus and 
stores. 

The courses in agronomy are introduced by a course of twenty 
lectures on the formation, character, and distribution of soils; the 
agencies still at work in soil formation and soil destruction; and the 
care re(iuired to ])e exercised to preserve the soils of agricultural 
districts. These lectures are given during the last four weeks of the 
second term of the freshman ye&v and are illustrated by samples of 
soil, rock, etc., and by the stereopticon, and are supplemented by 
laboratory work and oral (juizzes. During the third term of the 
freshman year, ten hours per week are spent in studying soils as 
regards their characteristics, functions, needs, and treatment in agri- 
culture; drainage, its theory and practice; reasons for the ditferent 
operations of the farm and the tools used; the planning of farm work, 
etc. Throughout this work the lantern is used to illustrate the talks 
and the student is taken to the tool room and to the field for observa- 
tion. It is the aim to have quizzes at least as often as once per week. 

Two hours daily of the first term of the sophomore j^ear are devoted 
to lectures and laboratory work in agricultural physics, including 
(besides rural engineering and farm mechanics) laboratory work in 
the mechanical anal3"sis of soils, the determination of moisture in 
soils, green and dry fodders, roots and grains, and experiments in 
moisture and air movements in soils. 

The su])ject of farm crqps is given in lectures live hours per week 
during the second term of the sophomore year. In this course, " good 
seed and conditions affecting its vitality, general requirements for 
successful plant growth, conditions governing the time and depth of 
planting, rate of seeding, etc., and the principles of plant improve- 
ment, are discussed. The history, distribution, general characteristics, 



40 

adaptability, uses of the several farm crops, and the best method of 
producing- them are studied." 

In the second term of the junior year the student ma}' elect '' agri- 
cultural experimentation," In this course one hour per day is given 
to lectures and individual work on the part of the student on the 
experiment station work and literature of this and other countries, 
the organization and work of the United States Depai'tment of Agri- 
culture, methods of experimentation, and the principles underlying 
the same. Each student is lequired in closing up the term's work to 
outline an experiment along some practical line of live stock, dairy- 
ing, soils, or crops, and to su])mit the outline to the class for criticism 
and discussion. The experimentation is continued during the third 
term two hours p:M- day. For example, the student electing an experi- 




il ;_;.il\ alii/.fd iiun ilsdl !iisluil\ rlVrcli\clu 



il' iiiulclics upon iniiistiiix- losses 



nuMit in agronomy, such as tests of forage crop mixtures, variety tests 
of field crops, fertilizer experiments, etc., is allotted the necessary 
land, furnished team, implements, seed, etc., and is required to carry 
through his expei'iment and report upon it. 

"The object of this work is twofold. To the voung man going- back 
to the farm it gives a training which onal)les him at once to pass upon 
the merits of any line of work described in station literature and to 
appropriate that portion of it which may be of value to himself; to 
the young man going into technical fields it gives a training- which 
should give strength and reliability to his work." 

In the senior year an elective in soil physics is ofl'ered. In this 
course ten hours per week during the first term are devoted to lectures 
and laboratory' work, eml)racinga study of the physical properties and 



U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate V. 




U. S. Dept, of Agr., Bui, 127, Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate VI. 




Fig. 1 . — Michigan agricultural College— Students Making Mechanical Analyses 

OF Soils. 




Fig. 2.— Michigan Agricultural College— Soils Laboratory and Class Room. 



41 



characteristics of soils, such as (Iclenniiiiiig-tho specific i4nivity, apparent 
specific gravit}', water inoveineiits, capillaritv, etc. During the winter 
term ten hours per week are devoted ])y the student to original inves- 
tigation work along some line agreed upon between the student and pro- 
fessor in charge. During the spring- 
term ten hours per week, seven 
weeks, are devoted to advanced work 
in soils, including lectures, labora- 
tory work, studying soluble salts in 
soils ])y the electrical method, the 
pore space in natural soils, etc. 

The building in which the instruc- 
tional and lal)oratory work in agron- 
omy is chiefly conducted is built of 
brick, is 53 feet long, o-t feet wide, 
and two stories high, with attic and 
basement, and is known as Agricul- 
tural Hall (PI. V). The basement 
of this building contains a large lab- 
oratory for agricultural ph3'sics, a 
small laboratory for mechanical 
analysis of soils (PL VI, fig. 1), store- 
rooms, etc. , and connects with a small 
plant house. The first floor contains 
offices, a dark room, and a large gen- 
eral lecture room provided with IK) 
square feet of blackboard, two cases 
of wall maps, a stereopticon, and a 
12 by 12 foot lantern screen. The 
windows of this and other rooms in 
the building are provided with cloth 
curtains and wood l)linds. TIk^ lan- 
tern slides at present include illus- 
trations of different phases of soil 
formation and soil destruction and of 
different kinds of farm machinery. 
New slides are being added. The 
soils laboratory, which also serves 
as a lecture room, is on the second 
floor of Agricultural Hall (PI. VI, 
fig. 2) and is supplied with apparatus as follows: Four sets of galvan- 
ized iron tubes (fig. 2) for the study of moisture movements in soils 
and three sets of brass tubes for the study of water and air movements 
(figs. 8 and 4) in soils; a '' King's aspirator"" (fig. 3) for determining the 
effective size of soil grains; a^'Whitnev's })ridge'" for determining- 




King's aspirator to di'tcrniine tlie ef- 
fective size of soil g-niins. 



4^ 

the soluble salts in soils; apparatus for the mechanical analysis of 
soils; a steam drying oven and a hot-air drying oven (tig. 6); tra3'sand 
case, sampling auger, and sampling tube for field work in soils; a 
torsion balance and a number of other lialances; four compound micro- 
scopes and one micrometer slide; a numlier of samples of typical soils 
from other States, as well as samples of Michigan soils, to wdiich 
samples additions are being made as rapidly as opportunity permits; a 
grade level and rod; specific gravity bull)s, drying tubes, and sundry 
glass and rubber tubing and glassware. Thv room has al)out 1^20 
square feet of blackboard. 

The college farm comprises over -too acres, not ijicluding the campus, 
orchards, gardens, stock yards, and the experiment st;ition plats. It 
is divided into twenty pasture, lield, and wood lots. At present the 
several acreages are about as follows: AA'oods, l-tO; wild pasture, 30; 
tame pasture, 37; hay, 09; and roots, cereals, and forage crops, 141 
acres. The soil is a drift soil and ranges from a sandy soil to a line 
cla}^ soil, all of which is interspersed with coarse gravel and hard Iieads 
and lunvklers. The farm machiner}- is uj) to date in every particular 
and includes a large collection of modern types of implements and 
machines, as well as some of the oldei' types, which are used by the 
students in making comparisons of draft, work, effect on soils, etc. 

The library contains over 21,000 bound volumes and about 5,000 
pamphlets, and is rich in scientific works. The tables of the reading 
room are supplied with all the leading agricultural papers and journals. 
In matters concerning crops and soils reference is made, first of all, 
prol)ably, to station literature, then to Storer's Agriculture, King's 
works, and others of Baihn's Rural Science Series, and the Kotiiam- 
sted i-eports. 

ExniHiT No. 5. 

A FEW OF THE PRACTICUMS IN AGRONOMY. 

The viorciiu'iil of air tliniiKjh (Jiffrrtnit xoiU. 

Description of apimratus. — The apparatus u.sed for the study of air movements 
through soils consists of an aspirator, as shown in fig. 4, and 12 brass tubes 16 
inches in height and having a diameter of 3 inches. These soil tubes are all filled to 
the depth of 1 inch with a coarse sand, and above the sand are filled to a depth of 12 
inches with tlie different soils indicated in the table. By means of apparatus pre- 
pared for the purpose the soils are introduced into the tubes and packed so that any 
difference in the pore space in the soils must be due to the physical properties of the 
soil. It will be seen that the variation of size of soil grain, variation in the propor- 
tions of large and small grains, variation in amount of organic matter present, etc., 
must be the factors resulting in the differences in the rates at which the air moves 
through the soil. 

Observe that we have not the conditions in the soil in the cylinders that we have 
in the soil in the field, and that with this apparatus we are studying only the effects 
resulting largely from the i)roperties named. 



Erratum.— Oil i)af^es 43 and 44 tlie cuts liave been transposed, i. e., the 
apparatus shown on page 48 is for the study of percolation of water through 
soils and the apparatus shown on page 44 is for the study of the niovement of 
air through soils. 



43 

DeUiHt^ of llie pntcticKiii. — 

1. Willi the i-ul)l)cr tulx' dctuclu'd I'min <n\\ tiil..-s, lilt llic aspirator wciiilit. all.iw- 
ini,'l.c-ll to I'all to liottoni ol' aspirator tank. 

'2. Attach niblnr luhe to soil tiilu' No. I. 

3. Now carefully lowci' weiirht until it is just sustainc(l Ky |ircssurc o|' air upon 
the bell. 

-1. With watch note tinio rr(|uiri'(l for the hau<l lo |ia.ss over three ilivisions of the 
dial, recording time as indicated in a table like the one l)elo\\ . 

;"). In like niann(>r attach rublx^' tube to Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, (>, 7, and s and note and 
recoril the time vequired to pass oxer three divisions of the dial. 




Fiu. -1. — Apparatus u.scd to study the movement of air through soi 



G. In like manner attach rubber tube to Nos. i), 10, 11, and 12 and note the time 
required for the hand to pass over one division on the ilial. .Multiply this time by 
three and introduce in tal)le. 

7. Make computations and till in as indicated in the tal)le. 





Soil. 


Number 
of cylin- 
der. 

{ I 

I 3 
\ 4 
f 5 
1 6 

i 7 

1 8 
1 9 
1 10 
f 11 

1 1- 


Time. 


1 Relative 




Initial. : Final. 


Net. 


Average. -^--e- 










l ' 










] ]>er cent lime 










1 






















1 






















( 












])er cent lime 










1 














i 

\ 


Clay 



















1 




. 



44 

Percolation of valer iJiruugli differerii soils. 

Description of apparatus. — This apparatus (fig. 5), consists of soil tuljes similar to 
those used for the study of the rate of air movement through soils differing only in 
having tubes at the top by which the series may be connected by pieces of rublDer 
tubing and supplied automatically with water so that the head or pressure in all the 
tubes can be kept constant. The tubes are filled in the same manner with soil as for 
studying air movements, and the rate of percolation depends upon the same i)hysical 
properties of the soils as in the case of the movement of air. 

Di'tnils of the practicum. — 

1. See that the water supply is properly arranged. 

2. Tare the glass or cylinder of each soil tul)e and record its weight in the proper 
l)lace in a table like the one shown below, but do notreturn them immediately under 
the drain tul)es. 

.'1 Remove corks from drain tul)es and insert wire drips. 

4. When water drops from all the wires, place the glasses and cylinders quickly 
under the drain tubes, noting the time. 




Fui. .'). — Ajiiiaratns iisod lo slu<iy jxTcoIation of water throiifjli soils. 

5. At the end of 45 minutes (juickly remove glasses ami cylimlers. ' 

6. Remove wire di'ips and insert corks in diain tubes. 

7. Weigh glasses and cylinders with contents and ri'cord weiglils in the ])roper 
place in the table. 

8. Make proper computations and introduce results in table. 



Clay 

Clay loam 

Sandy 

Peat 



Number Weight \^;^\^^'l^l 
of of empty I ^,\^'",^^^'^ 
cylinder, cylinder.! '";„,^°" 



Weight 
of water 
percolat- 
ing in 45 
minntes. 



Average 
percola- 
tion in 45 
minutes. 



Relative 
rates of 
perco- 
lation. 



Tons per 
acre 

yier hour 
perco- 
lating. 



Inches 
per hour 
perco- 
lating. 



45 

l><'li'nnni<iti(ni nf xoil moisliiri'. 

IN SOILS KJtElO I'KOM STONK. 

To take sHmi)les: 

1. Provide yourself with soil tu)»e, inailet, and three soil trays. 

2. Having determined place for taking soil sample, i)aek tht^ surface of the swil 
lightly with the foot. Press or drive the tul)e iut,» the ground until the 1-foot mark 
on the tul)e is even with the surface of the ground. (Jive the tube' a turn. Place 
one hand tirndy over the top of the soil tube to keep out air and with the other hand 
grasp and slowly withch-aw the tube. 

3. Remove cover from one of the trays, invert the soil tube, and allow the core to 
pass from the tube into the tray. Put cover on tray at once. 

4. Return soil tube to the hole and press or drive down until the 2-fo(jt mark on 
the tube is even with the surface of the ground. Remove as before and place the 
core in a second tray. 

5. In like manner secure core from third foot and introduce into a third tray. 

6. Pass to another point and as before secure cores of the first, second, and third 
foot, respectively, and introduce the cores into tlie trays containing the first, second, 
and third foot, respectively, already obtained. 

7. Repeat until composite sami:)les of four are obtained. 
To dry samples: 

8. AVeigh each tray with contents, recording weights of eacli. Remove covers and 
place trays in drying oven. 

9. After forty-eight liours replace covers and weigh trays with contents, carefully 
recording weiglits. Be sure samples are dry. 

10. Remove the dry soil from trays, wipe the trays carefull}' and weigh, recording 
weight. 

11. Determine (a) loss of moisture from the soil, (h) weight of dry soil, and (c) 
the jjer cent of moisture in eacli soil estimated on dry weight of soil. 

IN KOCKV SOIL. 

To take samples: 

1. Provide yourself with two soil trays and a spade. 

2. Having determined place to take samples dig a hole 1 foot deep and a little 
wider and longer than the width of your spade. See that one side is perpendicular. 
Remove all loose soil from bottom of hole. 

3. With spade cut off a slice 1 inch thick from the perpendicular side of the hole 
to a depth of 6 inches, allowing soil to fall to the bottom of the hole where it should 
be quickly crumbled and mixed and freed from stones larger than a small marble. 

4. Place about one-half pint of this soil in one of the trays and cover. Remove the 
rest of the soil from the bottom of the hole. 

5. With spade finish cutting the slice to the depth of 1 foot and proceed as above 
to mix and free from stone. 

6. Place one-half pint of this soil in the second tray and cover. 

7. Selecting another point proceed as above to take samples of the first and second 
6 inches, respectively, and place the samples so taken in the trays with the samples 
of the first and second 6 inches already taken, respectively. 

To dry the samples: 

8. Weigh each tray with contents, recording weights of each. Remove covers and 
place tray in drying oven. 

9. After forty-eight hours replace covers and weigh trays witli contents, carefully 
recording weights. Be sure samples are dry. 

10. Remove the dry soil from trays, wipe the trays carefully and weigh, recording 
weight. 

11. Determine (a) loss of moisture from soil, [l>) weight of dry soil, and {(■) the 
per cent of moisture in each soil estimated on dry weight of soil. 



46 



Ih'ti'nniiKitioii uf inoislurc iit (jreen rrojix, fodderx, ronly, diid grains. 



1. PREPARATION'. 

{(i) (ireeii crops. Cut sample close to ground. Either fold or tie into short bun- 
dles or cut into short lengths and i)ut into 
a tray. 

(6) Fodder (including hay and straw). 
Cut a quantity of the material in a feed 
cutter or with a knife, mix well, and fill 
tray with sample. 

((•) Roots. Select one or more typical 
roots, clean with a good brush or wash 
and wipe carefully. With a sliarj) knife 
slice in tray quickly and cover. 

[d) Grain. Place about one i:)int of 
cleaned grain in a tray. If it is desired 
to determine the moisture of corn in the 
ear select a typical ear having all of its 
kernels and place in tray. 

II. LABELIXCi. 

For the material placed in the trays it 
is sufficient to record the number of the 
tray. 

Upon those materials not placed in 
trays a tag bearing your name should 




be placed. 



III. WEIGHTS. 



Fill. Ci. — Hot-air drviiiff oven. 



You will need to determine: {<i) Net 
weight l)efore drying; (b) Net weight 
after drying; (r) Loss of moisture by 
drying. 

With this data determine the i)er cent 
of moisture in the undried material. 

IV. THE I)KYIX(t. 

Place material in hot-air oven (fig. 6) 
i laving tem^jerature of 120° C. Drying 
should continue until materials have 
reached constant weights. This will usu- 
ally l)e accomplished in twenty-four 
hours, but sometimes as much as forty- 
eight hours are required. 

[Each student is given from six to eight 
materials to dry. In some cases he is 
required to go to the bin or field to pro- 
cure them.] 



47 

I'A M inrr No. (i. 

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS IN SOILS AND CROPS. 

[This si'l, (if questions covlts in a Lrencnil \\m.\- llic work ilonc iluriiiL; tlu' siirini;- tcriii of the frcsliinaii 

year. I 

1. What is iiieant ]>y tillage? What aiv the ehiel' (il)jects soiigiit in tillage? Tell 
quite fully how one of these objects is aeeouiiilished. 

2. Explain the action of the connuon American jtlow. Jlow does it differ from the 
English plow? Speak briefly of their relative merits. What objections to the com- 
mon plow? What may we do toward obviating some of the bad effects? 

3. Why do we cultivate? r)escril)e an ideal cultivator and ideal cultivation. 

4. What are some of the methods for removing the surplus water from land? 

r>. What will govern each of the following: Depth of drain, distance apart of 
drains, size of tile to be used. 

H. What grade should tile drains have, what is the least grade allowable, and 
what precaution should be taken in laying a drain at such a grade? 

7. How should laterals be connected with drains? Where and how should silt 
wells be constructed? 

8. What is meant by rotation of crops? ^^'hy do we rotate at all? 

!). Outline w'hat you woidd call a good rotation, and give reason for the i)resence 
of each crop in the rotation. 

10. When would you apply barn manure? At what rate, and why? 

n. Speak of the value of clover as a crop. AVhy is it difficult to grow clover in 
Miciiigan? Tell how you would secure a stand of clover. 

12. The effect of lime upon soils? Why? AVould you apply lime to the soils of 
Michigan? If yes, at what rate and why? If no, why not? 

b'l. What difference between a good truck soil and a good grass soil, and why is 
eai'h soil especially adapted to its own crop? 

14. In what way is the size of soil grain related to ((() the water holding capacity 
of the soil, (/>) the jiknit feeding qualities, and (c) to the retaining of plant foods 
against jiereolation? 

15. How does the amount of moisture re(iuired to grow a crop conq^are (a) with 
our annual rainfall, (b) with the water content of our soils in the month of ]March? 
What ol)jections to summer fallowing? 

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. 

Candidates for admission to the College of Agricidtiiie of the Uui- 
versity of Minnesota must have the equivalent of either a three-year 
eoui'se in the school of agriculture plus one year of work of high- 
school gi'ade in algebra, geometry, English, history, and economics, 
or a four-3'ear course in a city high school plus one or two 3"ears in 
the school of agriculture. The school of agriculture is a technical 
high school, in which agriculture and subjects closely related to it 
largely predominate. These subjects include agricultural botan}, 
chemistr}' and ph3'sics, dairy chemistry, agronomy, farm accounts, 
animal husbandry, daily husbandly, fruit growing, \egetable garden- 
ing, etc., presented in a way to fit 3'oung men for successful farm life 
or for entrance to the college of agriculture. 

The college course in agriculture is designed for those graduates of the school of 
agriculture and s'tudents from other institutions equally well prepared who desire 



48 

fui'tlRT inf^tnictiini in jirartical agricultuial st-ience, in the sciencen related to agri- 
culture, and in literature and the arts. Since all students who enter this course 
have had the technical, scientific, and general work offered in the school of agricul- 
ture, the college course includes only advanced work of a collegiate grade. This 
course designs to efficiently prepare students for either farm life or for the work of 
the agricultural specialist. It emphasizes the importance of plant and animal pro- 
duction and the upbuilding of rural homes and farm life, while the biological and 
physical sciences are made i^rominent. 

Following the four years of preparation in practical agricultural lines in the school 
of agricailture, the freshman and sophomore years are devoted largely to the study of 
the sciences. The technical subjects relating to agriculture and household economics 
are mainly offered as electives in the junior and senior years, when the freedom for 
election enables the student to choose as a specialty a major science or an agricultural 
or a household subject around which to group related elective subjects. The elective 
courses during the last two j-ears give an opportunity for further culture in literary 
and philosophical lines and for becoming more ])r()ficient in scientific research work 
in some of the many problems pressing for solution in the development of the State 
and national agricultural experiment stations. The instruction in the various tech- 
nical agricultural and household divisions in the college course is for the most part a 
continuation of the work in these subjects in the school of agriculture, each subject 
being treated from a more technical standpoint. Students who have first graduated 
from the agricultural school are ready in their junior and senior years to elect spe- 
cialties for study and research work along lines in which they hope to work after 
graduation. 

The ,siU)jects in the school ot" uoriculture wliich more e.speciall}' pre- 
pare foi" the eollegiate work hi aoroiioiny are ai^riciiltiiral chemistry, 
aoricultural l>otany, aoricultiiral physics, and the subjects inchided 
under the title of ao-ricvdture. 

Agricidtural chemistry is divided into dair>' chemistry; chemistry 
of foods, soils, and fertilizers, and domestic chemistry. Under the title 
of soils and fertilizers the student receives instruction in the composi- 
tion of soils and their properties, the sources of plant food, the kinds 
and amounts of foods required by crops and the best ways of supplying 
these demands, the various forms in which plant food exists in the 
soil, farm manures, their uses and action upon the soil, the income 
and outgo of fertility from the farm, soil exhaustion and soil improve- 
ment, the rotation of crops, as based upon the chemistry of soils and 
the principles governing the conservation of the fertility of the soil. 
Laboratory practice forms an important feature of all the work in 
agricultural chemistry. 

Agricultural botany is taught with special reference to its bearing 
upon the everydaj^ problems that present themselves to the farmer 
and the gardener. By means of lioAvers and plants from the green- 
house and nursery, studied under the simple and the compound micro- 
scope, students are given a clear idea of the general principles of plant 
structure and vegetable physiology. 

In agricultural physics the general principles of physics are taught, 
special stress being laid upon those principles which to the greatest 
extent enter into the business of the farmer. About half of the time 



49 

is cicN'otcd to (wpcM'imciidil worlv whicli iiicliKlcs ciipilliirity of soil; 
dirtusioii iiiid osmosis of oa.ses and ii([uids; licatiiio', ii<4htiMu-, and ven- 
tilation; farm machinery, in paiticular pumps, eveners, pulleys, milk 
testers, eentrifuoals, incubators, windmills, steam and gasoline engines; 
friction and lubricants; tensile strength of wire and binding twine of 
ditiereiit grades; lightning and lightning protection. 

The work designated "agriculture" in the school of agriculture 
includes (1) "introductory agricultiire-soils; selecting and planting 
farms; subduing the fields; drainage; irrigation; fences; roads; build- 
ings; water suppl}-; groves and introductory lessons concerning farm 
business, farm life, and the relations ot general science to agriculture;" 
and (2) ticdd crops and farm management, comprising instruction in 
remodeling farm plans, production and management of farm manures, 
rotation and handling of field crops, care and use of pastures and 
meadows, weeds and their destruction, and the laws of heredity and 
variation in plant breeding, together with instruction in methods of 
breeding the leading field crops. 

The college course in agronomy includes soil physics, field crops and 
seed, and plant breeding. Instruction in soil physics is given in the 
divisions of agricultural physics and agricultural chemistry, while 
that in field crops and seed and in plant breeding is given mainly by 
the professor of agriculture. 

Under the head of field crops and seed are considered the botan}^ 
cultivation, use and place in the rotation of the various cereal, forage, 
root, fiber, sugar, and miscellaneous crops. Special attention is given 
to the subjects of permanent, rotation, annual, and shift pastures and 
to soiling crops; to permanent and rotation meadows, and to the pro- 
duction and preservation of all kinds of dry-cured and ensiled fodders. 
A thesis on one or more field crops is required of each student. 

The work in plant breeding includes instruction on such subjects as 
heredit}', variation, science of breeding, breeding as an art, improve- 
ment by nature and under scientific experimentation, securing founda- 
tion stocks, value of very large numbers, immense value of the occa- 
sional individual which can transmit qualities of peculiar value, use 
of an ideal, use and misuse of the score card, intrinsic qualities, fancy 
points and distinguishing marks, pedigree records of prepotency, 
fundamental principles underlying the arrangement of the record 
books, bibliography and terminology, study of the literature of breed- 
ing. Attention is also given to the botany of the reproductive organs 
of held crops, held-crop nursery management, producing new qualities 
by hybridizing and by change of environment, hybridizing versus cross- 
breeding, in-breeding and self-fertilization, originating varieties and 
improving standard varieties, methods of disseminating new varieties, 
seed and plant introduction, experimentytion in the theories relating 
26777— No. 127—03 4 



50 

to he)"cdity, var'uitioii and pnu-tical l)reediiiti', f^eed (growing- a.s a farm 
business, seed nierchandisino'. 

pjlective practicunis o-ive opportunity to gain practical experience, 
to acquire greater manual dexterity in doing farm work, to secure 
practice in conducting experiments, and to gain experience in teaching 
agricultural subjects. 

Agronomy is taught in dairy hall (PI. VII, lig. 1) in temporary 
quarters which include one good recitation room, offices, andla})oratory 
room. There is also a seed-l)reeding lahoratorv which furnishes 
facilities for special instruction in field seeds and in laliorator}' work 
in ])lant ])reeding. The college possesses a stereopticon with several 
hundred lantern slides, including illustrations of crops, implements, 
machinery, processes of drainage, etc.; imported models of wheat and 
of clover flowers and seeds; many charts of root systems and illustra- 
tions of floral organs which have been drawn at this institution; also 
maps and designs of farm plans, both for laying out new farms and 
for reorganizing old ones. Several hundred pastef)oard boxes 2-i 
inches long, 13 inches wide and 5 inches high, such as tailors use for 
suit l)oxes, are annually filled with bundles of weeds, grasses, and forage 
crops. These serve in the classes for material to tear apart, examine 
the seeds, and get acquainted with the general appearance. Seeds are 
also preserved in bottles. The collection of farm machinery in use at 
the university farm is supplemented by collections on exhibition at the 
State fair grounds, adjoining the farm, and at warehouses in St. Paul 
and Minneapolis. 

One unicpie feature of the office equipment is a special index iiling 
cas(\ Here are collected newspaper clippings, manuscripts, and 
references to literature in the library. These arc put on sheets, 
5^ l)V 81^ inches, separated by division cards, and arranged under a 
scheme similar to that used by the Office of Experiment Stations in 
classifying special index cards of the station literature. This iiling 
case now contains much material and is referred to constantly by stu- 
dents in the college course in writing essays and theses in connection 
with their class work. Each student who writes a thesis on a farm 
crop or other subject is required to furnish a copy for this tiling case, 
and to include any bibliography he has been able to collect on that 
subject. Thus the students are assisting in ])uilding up the contents 
of this iiling case and it is recognized by them as very valuable. 

No text-books are as yet in use, instruction being given almost 
entirely by lectures. The agricultural library now contains 6,000 
books and about 6,000 pamphlets, including reports and bulletins. 
Aside from the large number of pamphlets and other ])ublications of 
the different agricultural institutions and societies, a large number of 
the more important technical and agricultural magazines are kept on 
file, bringing together all the agricultural literature of any importance. 



U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate VII. 




Fig. 1 .—University of Minnesota— Dairy Hall. 





^ 




?" c 


^n^^^^H^H^H 


^^PV^^^^^^^^^^^I^^^H^^H 






IP9HP "^^^ni^B 



Fig. 2.— University of Minnesota— Emasculating and Cross Pollinating Wheat. 



U. S. Dept of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate Vlll. 




Fig. 1.— University of Minnesota— Centqener Thrashing Machine and Fanning- 
MiLL Separator in Use in the Field Crop Nursery. 




Fig. 2.— University of Minnesota— Machine for Planting Grain in Nursery Beds. 



51 

The uni\i'rsi( y l";irMi coiitaitis ^r>() aci'cs of land, of which aWoiit 15(1 
acres are (hn^oted to cxpcriiiuMit statioti and coUcinc of agriculture 
Avork. The soil is a mixture of clay and sand, and is well adapted to 
the various uses to which it is })ut. On the poi-tion of tiie t'ai-ni used 
by the colleoe;ind station there ar(^ many experiments in I'arm manao-e- 
nient, rotation of crops, treatment of pastures. impro\'ement of crops 
by breediny- (PI. VTI, tig. 2), etc. In the plant hi'eedino- experinuMits 
there are annually planted nearly HOO.OdO individual plants, including 
grains, clovers, root crops, etc., and for nuich of this Avork s])ecial 
machinei-\- has l)een d(Mised (tig. 7 and PI. \"II1, tigs. 1 and 2). 




FKt. 7. — Centrifugal sfOil-grailiiiK niachiia'. 

Students who make a specialty of agronomy assist in these experi- 
ments. Farms in the vicinity serve as a basis for designing farm 
plans and working out problems in farm management. 

THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA. 

The industrial college of the Universit}^ of Nebraska offers several 
four-j^ear agricultural groups (courses) leading to the degree of bach- 
elor of science — a technical group, a general group, and two special 
groups. The technical group is intended for gi'aduates of the three- 
3'ear course in the school of agriculture. "The studies in the general 
groups are arranged to meet the needs and requirements of those 
students whose primary object is a broad and general education." 
Those in the special groups are for students "titting themselves to be 
instructors in agricultural subjects or to be experiment-station work- 
ers,'' and "have been planned and coordinated to enable students to 
direct their work so as to meet their individual needs and preferences." 
Candidates for admission to the general and special groups must pre- 
sent certificates from accredited schools, academies, or colleges, or 
must pass examinations (1) on the following requireclsubjects: English, 
four years of language (ancient or modern or both), algebra through 



logarithms, piano and solid oeonietry, and elenientaiy botany, cheniis- 
tiy, and physics; and (2) on a sufficient number of the following- sub- 
jects for a total of 11 credits: Language, history, manual training, 
physical science, natural science, plane trigonometr}', mechanical 
drawing, physiology and hygiene, physiograph}^, civics, and })olitical 
economy. 

"All the courses in the first year of residence are prescribed, and 
form the coiimion ])ases of l)oth the general and the special groups 
offered." T\w courses included in this year and the number of hours 
per week for each course are mathematics 5, modern language 4, phys- 
ics 3, English 2, chemistry 2, militar}^ drill 1. The work in chenu'stry 
includes "a careful study of the occurrence, methods of preparation, 
and properties of the connnon elements and their chief compounds."'' 
After the first year the courses are mostly elective. At least 10 per 
cent of the work of the last three years is taken in agriculture and 
chemistry or agriculture and botany, but ""no student shall take or 
receive credit for more than fort}" hours' work in any department 
during his undergraduate course." 

Agi'onomy at the University of Nebraska '"'■ includes on the instruc- 
tional side the subjects of soils, field crops, farm management, and the 
care and use of farm machiner3\"'' The course in soils includes the 
following: The origin, deposition, and natural transportation of soils; 
physical and chemical constitution of soils and subsoils; influence of 
the size of soil grains on the rate of solution of plant food, drainage, 
aeration, water storage, capillarity, etc.; forms in which water exists 
in soils; movement of water in the soil; soil temperatures; evapora- 
tion of water from the soil; methods of soil treatment for conserva- 
tion of soil moisture; the significance of a chemical analysis of soil; 
fixation of fertilizing materials; nitrification; availability of plant 
food; tillage, reasons for tillage, effect of drifting, effect of plow- 
ing wet or dry soil; subsoil plowing, water-holding power of loose 
and compact soils; disking, listing, etc.; the application of barnyard 
and green manures and commercial fertilizers. Given by the profes- 
sor of agriculture. 

This is followed by "field crops, their general composition and their 
relation to the air and soil; useful and essential ingredients of the ash 
of plants; functions of the ash constituents of plants and the forma- 
tion of plant substance; functions of the roots, stems, and leaves of 
plants; the breeding of cereals; a treatment of each of the principal 
field crops, somewhat according to the foUowing scheme: Characteris- 
tics, varieties, vitality, climate, soil, manures, tillage, seeding, culti- 
vation, harvesting, preservation, position in rotation, uses. Given by 
the professor of agriculture." 

Following these two courses is a laboratory course in the "Proper- 
ties of soils," continuing throughout the year and given by the pro- 
lessor of agriculture and the instructor in agriculture. 



U. S. Dept. of Agr, Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate IX. 




U. S. Dept. of Agr,, Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate X. 




Fig. 1 .—University of Nebraska— Field Crops Laboratory, Students Judging 

Seed Corn. 




Fig. 2.— University of Nebraska— Soils Laboratory. 



U S. Dept of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt, Stations. 



Plate XI. 




Fig 1.— University of Nebraska— Apparatus for Making Determinations of Soil 

Moisture. 




Fig 2.— University of Nebraska— Experiment Plats. 



U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui, 127, Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate XII. 




Fig. 1 .—University of Nebraska— Seed Laboratory. 




FiG. 2.— Un'versity of Nebraska— Corner in the Seed Storeroom. 



53 



Elective courses arc otlci'ctl as follows: 

"^[(^tliods of invcstiiiiition witli soils. A study in detail of 
reported experiments, the object heirio- to familiarize the 
student with th(> methods of scientilic investigation in the 
subject under discussion. 

"Methods of investigation with liehl crops. Conducted 
similarly to thc^ above. 

'VPlant food in the soil; a series of pot exptM-imt'nts. 

"Production and movement of crops as atl'ectini^' prices, 

•'Suoar-])eet culture. History of the culture of the sugar 
beet. Ertect upon ocneral agriculture of sugar-l)eet culture. 
Varieties of the sugar l>eet. Types. Composition and struc- 
tur(> of the ])eet plant. Soils and climatic conditions adapted 
to raising sugar ])eets. Preparation of the soil. Planting the 
seed. Culti\ation, Harvesting. Siloing. Seed pro- 
duction; breeding, establishing of strain. Position of 
the beet crop in the system of crop rotation. 

"The la])oratory work [in soils] consists of the follow- 
ing demonstrations: Determination of specific gravit}' 
of soils; determination of the volume weight of soils: 
power of loose soils to retain moisture; the power of 
compact soils to retain moisture; rate of per- 
colation of water through soils ; rate of perco- 
lation of air through soils; eti'ect of mulches 
on evaporation of water from soils; behavior 
of the soil toward gases; capillary attraction 
of the soil ; the power of soils to tix aumionia. "" 

Instruction for students in these courses is 
by means of lectures and laboratory practice, 
using books of reference throughout almost 
the entire course. In the study of field crops 
the experiment station publications are used 
very freel3\ Students fitting themselves to 
be instructors in agricultural subjects or to 
be experiment station workers are given 
etery opportunity to stud}' the methods of 
agricultural investigations at the agricultural 
experiment station farm. 

Class rooms and laboratories used for in- 
struction in agronomy are in the general agri- 
cultural building(Pl. IX). One class room, 33 
by 20 feet (PL X, fig. 1), contains specimens 
of plants, seeds, etc. , used for purposes of in- 
struction in field crops. One laboratory, 33 
by 20 feet (PI. X, fig. 2), is used for demon- 
strations of A'arious properties of soils. 



ffi 



C 



B 



iA 



Fig. 8.— Movable soil thermometer: 
A, hollow steel tube, i inch inter- 
nal (lianieter, 15 inehes long; B, 
solid steel plunger, 19 inehes long^, 
which elosi'ly fits the tube A; C, 
long stem (IS inehes) thermome- 
ter which closely tits the tube A. 



54 



This lal)oratoiy is provided with desks, water, gas, etc.. and may be 
considered a well-equipped lal)()ratory. The desks are Hi feet high 
and 4 feet wide, with drawers and ciipl)oards on ])oth sides and water 
and gas cocks in the center. The apparatus is designed to record 
soil temperatures (fig. 8), to take 
samples of soils (tig. 9), to deter- 
mine soil moisture (PI. XI, fig. 1), 
and to test a num])er of prop- 
erties of dirt'erent soils, for in- 
stance, the water-holding power 
of loose and compact soils, the 
rate of percolation of air through 
soils, and cei'tain other physical 
properties, some of the a})paratus 
for which was designed by Pro- 
fessorCxibbs, formerly of the Ohio 
State University. 

About 50 acres of land are used 
for ])urp()ses of instruction, al- 
thougli other land used forexperi- 




ifiG. 9.— Soil-sampling apparatus: A, hollow steel sampling tube, ; inch internal diameter, 45 inches 
long, marked every 3 inches; B, solid steel rod, 461 inches long, which closely fits A; C, ejector; 
D, driving head lor sampling lube; E, aluminum cans for soil samples; F, case for .sample cans. 

mentation may also be considered as a part of the instructional 
equipment (PI. XI, fig. ti). Foi'ty acres are divided into subfields of 
exactly 5 acres each. These fields are not fenced, but are divided by 
roadways, the land occupied by which is not a part of the 5-acre tracts. 



55 

The roadways are 1 rotl wide. Four of the sul)h(;Ul,s are severallv in 
rotations, intended to deiiioiist rate the etl'ectof Mianiirinij;' and of period- 
ieall\ seedino- to <>rass. For instance, subliidds C and II are each year 
j)lan(ed to the same ci'ops and the same character of manui-e applied 
in ('((ual (|iiantities, the oidy ditt'erencc ])eino' that at certain intervals 
Mihlield II is allowed to lie in urass for a period of years, while suhtield 
C is cropjx'd continuously. The followin^jf is the rotation: 



1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 

1903 
1904 
1905 



Subfield C. 



Corn (manured) 

Corn 

Oats 

Winter wheat 

Corn (nmnured in winter) 

Oats 

Winter wtieat 

Corn (manured in winter) 



Subfield H. 



Brmnus inmnis. 
BriiiiiiiK iiKriiiin. 
l{niiiiii!< iiii /■mis. 
Broiiiiis iiitriiiis. 
Corn (top-dressing of manure before 

plowing up Bromiis inermisj. 
Oats. 

Winter wheat. 
Corn (manured in winter). 



Subtields D and I are in similar rotations, except that subfield D does 
not receive any manure and that the crops grown on these fields are not 
the same as those on the other two subfields during the same year. The 
remainder of the subfields are used for growing new and not generally 
grown crops or for particularly good varieties or strains of varieties 
of common crops. In another field are 10 acres divided into plats of 
one-fifth acre, and each of these is planted to a particular perennial 
forage plant or combination of such plants. These are mostly grasses 
and clovers. They serve as an object lesson in profitable seeding to 
pastures and meadows in this region. Hurdles of special size are 
provided for fencing these, so that any one of them may be pastured 
when desired. In this manner the pasturage value is demonstrated. 
There is also a field of about 10 acres divided into experiment plats 
of one-tenth acre each. These, although primarily for experimenta- 
tion, are also of vahie for purposes of instruction. 

For instruction in implements and machinery, there are walking, 
riding, and disk plows; breaking plows; disk, spike, acme, and spring- 
tooth harrow\s; subsurface packer; roller; subsoilers; press drills; 
lister; corn planter; mowers; rake; hay loader; hay tedder; binder; 
thrashing machine, etc. There are, for instruction in soils, samples 
of soils from nearly a hundred different localities in the State. These 
have ])een analyzed mechanically and the original soil and its constit- 
uent parts arranged in small vials on a card showing the percentage of 
the various sized particles. There is a collection of about 90 of the 
native grasses in the State and some 200 specimens of grains (PI. XII, 
figs. 1 and 2). 

The college classes in soils use Snyder's Chemistry of Soils and 
Fertilizers, but the course is given largely by means of lectures. In 
field crops frequent use is made of Farmers' Bulletins and State agri- 
cultural society reports, and of Morrow and Hunt's Soils and Crops of 



56 

the Farm. The principal books of reference for classes in soils are Le 
Conte's Elements of Geology, Warington's Chemical and Physical 
Properties of Soils, Wahnschafl'e's Scientilic Examination of Soils, 
Johnson's How Crops Feed, Storer's Agriculture, and Roberts's Fer- 
tilit}^ of the Land; for classes in field crops, the pu])lications of the 
various experiment stations and of the United States Department of 
Agriculture. 

The agricultural lil)rarv contains complete or nearly complete sets 
of the Annals of Agriculture, Journal of the Royal Agricultural So- 
ciety of England, Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural 
Society of Scotland, Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, Journal of 
Agriculture, Journal fiir Landwirtschaft, Centrall)latt fiir Agricultur- 
chemie, Forschung-en auf dem Gebiete der Agricultur-Physik, an 
almost complete set of the publications of the various State experi- 
ment stations, and a fairly complete set of the publications of the 
United States Department of Agriculture. There is also a fairly 
complete collection of text-books and other books dealing with agri- 
culture in a general or special way, besides files of the more important 
agricultural newspapers. Altogether, in that section of the library 
pertaining to agronomy there are upward of l,.50O volumes. 

OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY. 

The four-year course in agriculture leading to the degree of bachelor 
of science in agriculture is given in the College of Agriculture and 
Domestic Science of the Ohio State University. This course is 
designed not only to make specially trained agriculturists, but also 
educated men. The course presupposes that a young man has had a 
high school training or its equivalent, and that he has had the train- 
ing in farm matters that necessarily comes to a young man who has 
lived on a farm. It supplements this ti'aining, but does not displace 
it. About one-third of the time of the student during the four years 
is or may he devoted to language (English or foreign), history, and 
economics; about one-third to pure science, and one-third to technical 
or professional training. Electives in the senior year allow for some 
variation in this regard. 

Applicants for admission to this course must ])e at least 16 years of 
age and have graduated at a State normal school, or approved high or 
preparatory school, or have passed examinations in the following sul)- 
jects: English grammar, composition and rhetoric, English classics; 
arithmetic, algebra, plane geometry; descriptive and physical geogra- 
phy, elementary botany, and physics; civil government or general 
history; and Latin (grannnar and four ])ooks of Cassar), or French 
(grammar and simple reading and translating), or German (grammar 
and reading, not less than 300 pages). 

i'he course in agronomy is given during the third or junior year of 



57 

the colle^'e course Jind is prcceclt'd l»y iiist ruction in iinricultiiral clicin- 
istrv (diu'ino- the iirst aiul second years), ])hysioloyical and economic 
l)otauy and vegctahU' pathoh><iV (tlurini>- tlic tirst year), and horticul- 
ture (during the s(H'ond year). 

In chemistry th(^ coui'se inchides lectures and laboratory work on 
the principles of cheiuistry and ciiemicai nomenclature, organic cheiu- 
istry, and the application of chemistry to agriculture. The lattei' is 
given (luring- the third term of the Iirst yeai'and includes the following- 
topics: Ingredients of plants, oiganicand inorganic, essential and non- 
essential; sources of plant food, air, and soil; nature of soil, mechan- 
ical portion, (uiti'itive portion, assimilahle, and reser\'e plant food; 
soil exhaustion and am(dioration; harnyard maiuire, its sources, com- 
position, and ])reservation; conuuercial fertilizers, tlieir rational use 
and methods of determining the needs of soils. In the second year 
there are lectures and laboratory work on the industries i-elated to 
agriculture (e. g. , manufacture of sugar, starch, vinegar, and li([uors); 
and the analysis of fertilizers, feeding stuti's, dairy products, sugar 
and sugar producing plants, fruits and vegetables, water, soils, oils, 
fats, grains, etc. The lecture rooms and laboratories are thoroughly 
equipped with apparatus and chemicals for the use of instructors and 
students. 

The course in botany includes elementary, physiological, and eco- 
nomic botany, and vegetable pathology, with lectures and recitations 
three times a week and laboratory and field work twice a week. In 
economic botany the student receives instruction and practice in 
handling the microscope and has the opportunity of learning much of 
the important modern methods in technique. The main part of the 
course in vegetable pathology is devoted to a study of the parasitic 
fungi most destructive to cultivated plants, and the means of their 
prevention forms the last part of the course. Instruction in ))otany 
is given in the botanical l>uilding which contains a large lecture room, 
museum, herbarium, three laboratory rooms, dark room, drying room, 
storeroom, and offices. The lecture room will, the coming year, con- 
tain a stereopticon furnished with electric light; a large number of 
charts, many of them colored lithographic photographs and mounted 
illustrative specimens are the principal appliances for daily class work. 
In this room are placed fifteen of the more important popular journals 
of botany for the use of students. The botanical books in the univer- 
sity library, a valuable and growing collection, arc largel}^ used for 
reference in connection with the several courses. The museum con- 
tains a large amount of illustrative material, the native medicinal 
plants and the collection of Ohio woods being ver\" complete. The 
State herbarium consists of between 12,000 and 15,000 sheets of Ohio 
plants. The general herbarium is about the same size. Professor 
Kellerman's private herbarium of 20,000 specimens, mostly parasitic 



58 

fungi, is also used l)y the department. The large laboratory is well 
equipped with dissecting and compound microscopes; also the usual 
appliances for doing l)oth elementary and advanced histological work. 
One of the small laboratories is devoted to experimental work in vege- 
table physiology and the other to s} stematic))otany. The greenhouse 
attached to the botanical building is an important adjunct to the 
department. There are four sections containing a total of nearly 
3,000 feet of glass. It contains a large number of illustrative plants, 
perhaps 3,000 specimens, representing the principal plant families and 
belonging- to several hundred species. The greenhouse furnishes nuich 
fresh material for laboi'atory use. It is also used as a laboratory to 
carry on special Avoi'k when growing plants are used. 

The courses in agronomy are given by the professor of agriculture 
and the instructor in agronomy and include two elementary courses 
during the second and third terms of the junior year and two advanced 
elective courses during- the tirst and second terms of the senior year. 
The courses in the order in which they must be taken are as follows: 

Elementary course in mils. — Lectures and recitations three times a 
week upon the origin, formation, kinds, and physical properties of 
soils and their impi'ovement by cultivation, fertilization, drainage, and 
irrigation. Practicum once a week in laboratory, testing physical 
properties of several soils; determining the relation of soils to heat, 
moisture, air, and fertilizers, and making mechanical analyses. For a 
detailed description of the laboratory exercises in this course, see 
P^xhibit No. 7, page 59. 

Elementary eaurse !n farm cropn.. — Lectures and recitations three 
times a week upon thi^ history, production, marketing, cultivation, 
and harvesting of fai'ui crops. For a iist of examination questions 
indicating the scope of this work, see Exhibit No. i>, page To. Prac- 
ticum once a week with growing and dried specimens of farm crops, 
including grasses, clovers, and other forage crops. A list of labora- 
tory or held practicums in this course is given in Exhibit No. 10, 
page 71. 

Advanced course in soils. — Lectures and recitations once a week on 
the physical properties of soils; the relation of soils to heat, air, and 
moisture; the effect of fertilizers on soil structure and fertility; con- 
sideration of practical methods of tillage as affecting crop producing 
power of the soil. Laborator}' and held experiments during two two- 
hour periods each week. A detailed schedule of laboratory work in 
this course is given in Exhibit No. S, page 69. 

Advanced course in farm crops. — Lectures and recitations once a 
week on {a) the effect of climate, soil, and markets on the distribution 
and adaptation of farm crops in the United States; (/>) the best method 
of crop production, including a careful study of the details of held 



U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui, 127, Office of Expt. Sfalions. 



PLATE XIII 




59 

(\\l)('riin('iit:iti()ii ns set forth in cxpoi'iiiKMit stiitioii hiiUctiiis iiiul 
r('})()rts iiiid the })iil)lic:iti()iis of tlu* United States Depai'lnuMit of 
Agriculture; (c) tlic consumption of farm crops. Practicums twice a 
week. 

Instruction in those courses is o"iven laroely ])\ means of lectures, 
hut f re({ueiit use is made of such text-hooks as The Soil and the Physics 
of Ao-ricultur«\ bv Kino-; and Soils and Crops of the Farm, hy Morrow 
and Hunt; and of hulletins, monographs, and reports issued hy tlie 
experiment stations and DepartmcMits of the United States ( Government. 

Instruction in agronom}', as in other branches of aoriculture, is 
given in the university building known as Townshend Hall, which was 
completed in 1S!)8 at a cost of $100,00(». 

TowiiMhend Hall (1^1. XIII) is 260 feet long, and varies in width from (14 to 7.S feet. 
It contains two stories and a l)asenient wliich is li feet high, making the building 
practically three stories high. The walls above the l)asenient line are of gray jiressed 
brick. The basement walls and the front entrance are of Bedford, Ind., Oolotic 
limestone, and the trimmings are of terra cotta of the same color as the brick. The 
roof is of dark-red tile. The building is of slow-burning construction throughout, 
with painted interior brick walls, exposed beams, maple floors, and hard ])ine finish. 
The lecture rooms and laboratory for the course in agronomy are on the first floor of 
this building. 

The soil physics laboratory is supplied with apparatus for studying the specific 
gravity of soils; volume weight of soils; power of loose soil to retain moisture; power 
of compact soil to retain moisture; rate of flow of air through soils; rate of percola- 
tion of water through soils; effect of mulches on evaporation of water from soils; 
effect of cultivation on evajioration of water from soils; jiower of dry soil to absorl) 
nioii-tnre from the air; and the capillary rise of water through soils. ^Mechanical 
analyses are also made of typical soils. 

In the study of soils, the large glass house with its equipment of i-ailroad tracks, 
trucks, and pots affords opportunity for the student to test the adajitability of crops 
to various soils; the fertilizer requirements of soils aiid to experiment on various 
other i)ro]jlems of cro]) growth. 

In the study of crops, large use is madt^ of the collection of dried specimens of 
grasses, grains, and seeds. The grass gaixlen contains about 25 varieties of grasses 
and clovers growing side by side where comparisons may be made as to the value of 
each for i)asture, meadow, and grass. The farm is visited frequently by students 
who make observations and studies of the practical methods there employed in the 
growing of crops. 

Exhibit No. 7. 

LABORATORY WORK IN THE ELEMENTARY COURSE IN SOILS. 

Experiments are arranged with reference to the number of labora- 
tor}^ periods in the term, and since there are ten to twelve periods, 12 
experiments have been planned which are described on the following- 
pages. The experiments are designed with special reference to the 
practical demonstration of some of the important principles underly- 
ing soil physics, and to supplement class-room teaching with actual 
work with the soil itself. 

The following soils used in the experiments are typical agricultural 



60 

soils selected on the Ohio State Ulli^ersity furni with referein'e to their 
ditTerences in texture and crop producing power: 

No. 1. Muck soil. Selected from a very fertile cornliekl. 

No. 3. First bottom alluvial loam. Very fertile. 

No. 8. Second l)ottom sandy loam with considerable clay. 

No. 4. Fine sand (0.25 millimeter to 0.1 millimeter in diameter). 

No. 5. Coarse sand (0.5 millimeter to 0,25 millimeter in diauK^ter). 

The soils are brought from the tields and air-dried in the laboratory. 
Numbers 1 to 3 are sifted through a 2-millimeter sieve having circular 
holes, and numbers 4 and 5 through finer sieyes. The soils are then 
placed in niim])ered bins in the lal)oratory. 

The following is a list of the la]»oratory experiments with descrip- 
tions and illustrations of each: 

Kxperiiiii'iit Sn. 1. 

])ETERM1.\ATK)N OF SI'ECIFIC (lUAVITY OF SOILS. 

This experiment shows weiglits of the various soils as compared with the weights 
of equal volumes lif water. The spedlic gravity of most soils is a]x)ut 2.5 — that is, 
soil calculated free of air space weighs 2.5 times as much as an e(iual volume of 




Fiii. lU. — Apijanitus for determining' specitic gravity of soils. 

water. The more organic matter a soil contains the less its specific gravity. In 
general, the specific gravity of a soil decreases inversely as its content of organic 
matter. Specific gravity nmst not l)e confused with appaicut specific gravity, which 
will be explained in experiment No. 2. 

With a flask of 50 cubic centimeters capacity and provided with a ground-glass 
stojjper, drawn out to an open capillary tube (fig. 10), determine specific gravity of 
four soils which will be provided — Nos. 1, 2, Z, and 4. 

Fill flask with distilled water so that no air bubbles appear after the ground-glass 
stopper is instrted. Note temperature of water in flask. Wipe flask dry and weigh. 



61 

roiuiitil alioiit <iiic-liall' iif tlif watff in the llask ami put in a wci^lu'il (|iKuitity (10 
gninis) of the woil, whicli lias hern i)tvvi(msl.y drieil al 1 10" C. for twenty-four hourw. 
Place the Hask in a shallow water hath and hoil for two niinutes in order to drive out 
the soil air. Fill the llask with distilled water and hrinjj; to the same teniju-rature at 
which tlie previous wei.ii'ht was taken. Weifjh. (See that flask is full when weight 
is taken. ) 

C<ilrul((lii»i. — Add weight of soil used to weightof llask lillcil with waterand deduct 
therefrom weight of flask lilic(l with waterand soil. Tlie difference expresses the 
weight of a volume of water etiuai to the (juantity of s<iil u.sed. 

The specific gravity is found by dividing the weight of the soil taken hy the weight 
of the water it has displaced. 

K.fju'vhiK'ut No. "i. 



DICTKHMIN'.VnoN OF THE VOMIMK ^\ ICI 



inr, 

OF 



ai'1'Ai:kn r sciocifh 
■*oir.s. 



(iK.WrrV, AND I'OliOSITY 



Detenniue tlie volume weight of four soils, Nos. I, li, o, and 4. Weigh the empty 
tubes (fig. 11) carefully, t^se the soil direct from the bins and pour into the tube the 
measure level full. Then place the tul»e in the compacting machine (iig. 12) and 




Fig. 11. — Determination of volume weight, apparent speeiflc gravity, and porosity of soils. 

allow the weight to fall six times from the 12-inch mark. Pour in another measure 
of soil and repeat. Continue this until the tube is filled to the mark near the top. 
Weigh. Determine at the same time with a special sample the hygi'oscopic water 
whi(;h escapes at 110° C. Also determine the number of cubic inches, or centimeters, 
occupied by the soil in each tube. 

Calculations. — Subtract the weight of the empty tube plu.s the weight of hygro- 
scopic water in the soil used from the weight of the filled tube. This will l)e the 
weight of the given volume of soil. The volume weight of a cubic centimeter of soil 
should then be calculated. 

By dividing the volume weiglit of the soil with the weight of the same volume of 
water, the apparent specific gravity of the soil is obtained. 

By dividing this apparent specific gravitj' with the real specific gravity of the soil 
obtained in experiment No. 1, and substracting from 100, the remainder expresses 



62 



the iHT cent of jionisity of the soil, i. e., the sjiaee wliich, in the (h-y soil, is occupied 

by air. 

The volume weight of a soil varies with the amount of ])acking. A freshly plowed 

soil is much lighter per cubic foot than the same soil packed by rains or by trami)ing. 

In other words, soil has an apparent and a real specific gravity. Average field soils in 

good tilth have an apparent specific gravity 
of about 1.2, and when entirely free from 
air, a real specific gravity of about 2.5. 

The compacting machine referred to 
above was designed to ])ack all the soils 
into the tubes uniforndy and thus elimi- 
nate, in a large degree, the error due to 
une(iual packing in different tubes when 
making comjiarisons of aj)parent specific 
gravity of different soils. The machine 
does not do the work with absolute exact- 
ness, but seems to be a decided improve- 
ment over the uncertain method of filling 
by hand, which at best gives very unsatis- 
factory results. 

K.vpcr'niu'iit No. 3. 

'I'lIK I'OWKK OK LOOSE SOILS TO RETAIN 
MOISTURE. 

Use soils Nos. 2, o, 4, and 5 in this ex- 
periment. Place disks of damp cheese 
cloth in the bottom of the tulies (fig. 13) 
and then weigh the tubes carefully on the 
torsion balance. Fill the tul)es up to the 
mark, 1 inch from the tf)}), by pouring the 
soil in gently, leaving the soil in the tubes 
in a very loose condition, with much air 
space throughout the mass. Weigh the 
filled tubes. Place the iille<l tubes in the 
empty galvanized iron box. Pour water 
in the box until the water level almost 
reaches the tops of the tubes, thus allow- 
ing the Avater to percolate up througli the 
soils. When the water level in the tubes 
comes up to the level of the water in the 
box remove the tubes and place them in 
the frame, where the water is allowed to 
percolate out of them. Glass plates should 
be placed over the tops of the tubes to 
jirevent evaporation. The tubes should 
be weighed from day to day until the 
minimum weight is reached — until perco- 
lation ceases. 
The difference in weight between tlie tubes filled with dry soil and the wet soil will 
be the amount of water retained by the loose soil. In order to get the total water 
content of the wet soil, it is necessary to add to this the weight of hygroscopic water 
which the dry soil contained. The hygroscopic water of the dry soil should be 
determined with a special sample taken at the time the tubes are filled. 




Soil-compacting machine. 



63 

Calculate Ihc total nuiiilicr oi jxtiimls of water- retained j.er- eiihic f(»it of <lry soil 
aiul also llie number of .mirfaee iiicheH of water it rei)reMents. 

This experiment illustrateH (ho power of different tyju's of loose soil to retain 
watt'r. One of the advantages of cultivating soil is to make it loose in structure so 
that rain will be absorbed and retaiiie<l mon^ thoroughly than would l)e the case if 
the soil were uncultivated. Study results from this experiment in connection with 
those of experiment No. 4 for compact soil. 

Kr/H'riiiK'iil No. .}. 

THE I'oWKI{ OF CoMI'ACI' SOII.S To KK'r.MN MOIS'ITKK. 

Use soils Nos. 2, 1^, 4, and 5 in this exi)eriment. I'lace disks of moist cheese cloth 
in the bottom of the tubes (fig. li^). Weigh and then ill! within 1 inch of the to[) 
in the following mannner: Tour in 1 measure of soil. I'lace cylinder in compacting 
machine and drop weight six times from the 12-inch mark. Pour in another meas- 
ure and repeat. Continue this until cylinder is lilleil within 1 inch of the top. 




Fig. 13.— DeterDiiiiiiig tht.' power ut .soils to rrtuiii moisture. 

Place the tilled tuVjes in the emi)ty galvanized iron box. Pour water in the 1)ox 
until the water level almost reaches the tops of the tuljes, thus allowing the water to 
])ercolate up through the soils. AVhen the water level in the tubes comes up to the 
level of the water in the box remove the tubes and place them in the frame where 
the water is allowed to percolate out of them. Glass plates should be placed over 
the tops of the tubes to prevent evaporation. The tubes should be weighed from 
day to day until the minimum weight is reached — mitil percolation ceases. 

The difference in weight between the tubes filled with dry soil and the wet soil will 
be the amount of Avater retained by the compact soil. In order to get the total water 
content of the wet soil it will be necessary to add to this the weight of hygroscopic 
water which the dry soil contained. The hygroscopic water of the dry soil should 
l)e determined with a special sample at the time the tubes are filled. 

Calculate the total number of pounds of water retained per cul)ic foot of dry soil 
and also the number of surface inches of water it represents. 

This experiment illustrates the power of different types of comi)act soil to retain 
water. 

The results of this experiment should be studied in connection with those of 
experiment No. 3. 



64 

j^xperimciit No. 5. 

KATE OF PEH('()LATH)N OF W ATEli THKOUGU SOILS. 

The series of tubes (lig, 14) liaviug l)eeu tilled within 1 inch of tlie overflow pipes 
with soils Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, the compacting machine is used. 

After each measure of soil was put in the weight is dropped twice fnjm the 6-inch 
mark. The surface of the soil in eacli tube is covered with 1 inch of coarse gravel 
to prevent the soil l)eing disturbed by flowing water. 

See that all tul)es are connected by rubl^er tul)ing and the extreme ends of small 
tul)es corked. 

Pour in distilled water gently and keep the cylinders almost level full. After the 
flow into the glass flasks has become uniform, note the number of cubic centimeters 
which flow through in half an hour, l^etermine this by measuring in a graduated 
cvlinder. 




Fig. 11.— Katu vi pLTcolatioii of water through 



The character of soils used may bo examined in the boxes in the lalioratory. The 
tubes are numbered to correspond with tlie soil numbers. 

This experiment brings out the differences between soils in regard (o the rate of 
percolation of water through them. Other things equal, it is desirable that a soil 
should allow water to jyass through slowly, holding moisture the greatest length of 
time A\ithin the reach of croj) roots. 

Exper'niinit No. 6. 



KATE OF FLOW OF AIR THKOlKiH SOILS. 

Soils Nos. 1, 2, o, 4, and 5 are use<l in this experiment. The cylinder numbers 
correspond with the soil numbers. 

The compacting machine was used in filling the cylinders (fig. 15). After each 
measure of soil, the weight was dropped three times from the 12-inch mark. 

Open the cock on the copper cylinder and detach the hook holding the weights. 
Allow the copper cylinder to sink by its own weight. Attach the rubber tube to 
soil tube No. 1. Attach the weight hook and note the number of degrees passed by 
the pointer in 10 minutes or a longer time, if it be necessary in case o! the fine- 
grained soils. Record the weight for each of the five soils, calculating the weight per 
hour. 



65 

This (.xperinient lias a dirccf jn-actical Ix arin;,' on tho (jucslimi (if soil ventilation. 
8oil air is essontial to the life of nitrifyiiif,' and other bacteria whieh develop fertility. 
Other things etjual, the more readily soil will allow air to cireulate tliruugh it, the 
more favorable eonditions will he for the formation of ]ilant food. 




• - Fig. 15. — Appiiratus to determine the ruteof flow of air tlirough soils. 

Ji.i peri merit No. 7. 

KFFECT OF MULCHES OX EVAPOR.\TIOX OF WATER KKOM StMLS. 

The cylinders (lig. 16) are bs inches deep l)y 4 inches in diameter, and are tilled 
with first bottom soil from the Ohio State University farm. Tlie comj)actiug 




Flii. Iti. — Soil tul)es for slid win tc Uie elT(.>ct of nuilclies on evaporation ol water from soils. 

machine was ii-sed in tilling the cylinders to insure comparatively uniform compact- 
ness of soil in all cylinders. 

No. 1. Not mulched. 

No. 2. Not mulched. 

No. o. Surface cultivated 2 inches deep. (Soil mulch). 

No. 4. Surface cultivated 2 inches d^iip. (Soil mulch). 

No. 5. Mulched with 2 inches of coarse gravel. 

No. 6. Mulched with 2 inches of tine sand. 

No. 7. Mulched with 2 inches of sawdust. 

No. 8. Mulched with 2 inches of cut straw. 

26777— No. 127—03 5 



6(3 

No. 9. Not mulched. (Placeil in draft). 

No. 10. Not nmlched. (Placed in draft 1. 

Fill the cylindert* to the same level with distilled water every twenty-four hours 
for one week and keep a careful record of the amount of water used each day. The 
"S" glass tube ('/, fig. 16) will be used to determine the exact level to which the 
tubes should l)e filled. 

The cylinder which evaporated the least water during tlie period of o])servation 
should be the on& having the mjst effective mulch. 

In recording results show the amount of water put in each cylinder daily, and also 
the total amount for each cylinder for the entire run of the experiment. 

Experhnent Xo. S. 

THE POWER OF AIR-DRY SOIL TO ABSOKH MOISTURE FEOM THE AIR. 

Use soils Nos. 1 , 2, 8, and 4 in this experiment. Place 400 grams of air-dry soil from 
the bin in a shallow zinc tray (fig. 17), spreading it out as uniformly as possible. 




Fig. 17.— Dc'termiuiiig the powur of air-dry suils tu absorb moisture from the air. 

After weighing the tray (lid on) with the st)il, place an empty weighed l)ox, together 
with the others (lids off) , upon a shelf in the pneumatic trough. Place a thermome- 
ter in the trough and at each weighing read the temperature. Weigh each box (lid 
on) every twenty-four hours and deduct the increase in weight of the empty box 
from the increase in weight of each of the other boxes. Eepeat the weighings every 
twenty-four hours until with the same conditions of temperature an approximately 
constant weight is-obtained. The moisture retained is calculated for 100 grams of the 
soil dried at 110° C. Add to this increased weight per 100 grams of air-dry soil the 
weight of hygi'oscopic water contained in 100 grams of the air-dry soil. This will 
give the total amount of water taken from Wm air by 100 grams of water-free soil. 

J)etermine the hygroscopic moisture of each soil with a special sample at the time 
of starting the experiment. 

This experiment brings out the fact that dry soils absorb only a very small amcjunt 
of moisture from the air, even when the air is saturated, thus correcting an opinion 
which is prevalent but erroneous. 



67 



E.r/icriiiii'iit Xo. 9. 

A STUDY OK THK UATK OK KISK (IK CAIMLI.AKV WATKK ! X .SOIL-S. 

Use soils Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 in this experiment. Place a cheese-cloth disk in 
the bottom of each tube (fifi. 18) to prevent the escape of soil grains. Use the com- 
pacting machine to till the tnbes, allowing the weight to drop twice -from the r2-inch 
mark after each measure of soil. Weigh the tilled tubes carefully and place them in 
the frame \vith the lower ends standing in about 1 incli of distilled water, which 

should be maintained at constant level. 
As the water rises liy capillarity into the 
soil the tubes will increase in weight. 
Weigh the tubes carefully each day for 
one week, noting the daily increase in 
each tulje and also the total increase 
for each tube for the period. 

Ex peri) tin it Xi 

TO TEST THE A DIIESI VENE.SS OF SOILS. 

In this experiment soils Xos. 1, 2, 3, 
and 4 will be used. The adhesiveness 
will be determined bv measuring the 




Fig. is.— >Icas\iriiig capillarity in soils. 

force required to overcome the molecular attraction in a column of moist soil 1 
square inch in cross section. 

Weigh out roughly 150 grams of soil Xo. 1 and 180 grams each of Nos. 2, 3, and 4. 

Determine the force required to start the empty movable cage (a) by running sand 
from the rubber tube [h) into the tin pan (c) until the weight is sufficient to cause 
the cage to move (fig. 19). See to it that the cages are clean and the Ijearings clean 
and oile<L The weight of the pan plus the sand it contains represents the force 
required to overcome the friction of the empty cage, and should be deducted from 
the total breaking force in each subsequent test of soil. 

Empty the weighed sample of soil upon the "mixing boarcU' and add a small 
quantity of water. Mix soil and water thoroughly by hand working. Enough 
Avater should be added to bring the soil to its maximum adhesiveness. 

Pack the roll of mud thus formed into the mold, holding the cages together firmly; 
then with the spatula scrape off the top level with the upper edge of the mold. 
Attach the pan to the hook at the end of the wire. Pour sand into the pan in a 
constant stream until the weight is sutfieient to separate the cages and Itreak the soil 
column. Weigh the pan with the sand it contains and deduct therefrom the weight 
required to overcome the friction of the empty cage. The result represents the adhe- 
sive strength of a column of moist soil 1 square inch in cross section. 



68 



Care should be exercised to till the molds as nearly as possible in the same man- 
ner in each test. 

With this same roll of mud make four tests, using varying amounts of water. The 
proportion of water may be reduced by adding more dry soil. Te-^t each of the four 
types of soil in the above manner, using the highest test of 
each for comparisons of maximum adhesiveness. 

Experiments Xos. 11 and 12. 

MECHANICAL AXALY.SIS OF SOILS. 

A modification of the method used in the laboratory of the 
Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agrit'ul- 
ture. (PI. XIV, fig. 1. ) 

Twenty grams of "fine earth" are weighed out and placed 
in a porcelain or glass mortar. Enough water is added to 
give the soil the consistency of paste. The mixture is then 
rubbed with a rubber-tijij^ed pestle. 

In rubbing there should be just enough })ressure to detach 





Fig. 19. — Apparatus for testing the adhesivenes 



adhering particles and not enough to break the grains. After five minutes' rubbing 
more water may be added, and after letting it stand for two or three minutes the 
turbid liquid is decanted into a beaker, "A." Repeat this pestling and decanting 
until an examination through the microscope shows the grains to be perfectly clean. 
When clean the grains show sharp outlines and are transparent, while any adhering 
finer particles make them round and deeply colored. This pestling may require 15 
minutes to an hour or more. 

When the material is thoroughly disintegrated, it is transferred from the mortar 
to a No. 2 or No. 3 beaker, which is then filled with water, stirred and allowed to 
stand a few minutes, after which it is carefully decanted, leaving the last 20 or 30 cubic 
centimeters, the liquor Ijeing added to the beaker "A." This is repeated until the 
eand is free from clay, fine silt, and much of the silt. The sand should be tested 
with the microscope. All particles smaller than 0.05 millimeter are silt or fine silt 



U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate XIV. 




Fig. 1 —Ohio State University— Mechanical Analysis of Soil. 









'i(iiiHSHSSsss^BB8li ^ggj^i^gggjjj^ 






> 




l^j___j ijt^j 1 


nam 




1 " fca' -1 


1^ f-n=^ 










1 






- - 




__ 



FiG. 2.— Ohio State University— Torsion Balance Used in Soil Physics 

Laboratory. 



69 

and should be removed l)y furtlu-r (kH-iutatidii. The t^ediiuent in tlie bottom of 
beaker "A" should also be tested. If it contains particles larger than 0.05 milli- 
meter, the washing or deeantation was too rapid. In this case a recovery nuist be 
made. 

The sand is transferred from the beaker to a i)()n'elain (Hsh and dried. It is then 
ignited to destroy organic matter, after which it is sifted through a nest of sieves of 
1, 0.5, 0.25 and 0.1 millimeter, respectively, that gt>ing through the tiner ►^ieve being 
known as very tine sand. These live separations 
are weighed together before the sifting and sepa- 
rately after sifting. 

The amount of silt, fine silt, and clay which was 
washed away from the sand may be obtained approx- 
imately by subtracting the total weight of sand, 
moisture, and organic matter from the earth taken 
(20 grams) 

Considerable time and skill is required to make 
the separation of silt, fine silt, and clay. It will not 
be attempted in this experiment. 




Fig. 20.— Card's apparatus for testing the adhesiveness of soils. 

The following are the sizes into which the soil ]>articles are .seiiarated: 

No. 1. Gravel, 2-1 millimeters. 

X(t. 2. Coarse sand, 1-0.5 millimeter. 

No. 3. Medium sand, 0.5-0.25 millimeter. 

No. 4. Fine sand, 0.2.5-0.1 nullimeter. 

No. 5. Very fine sand, 0.1-0.05 millimeter. 

No. 6. Silt, 0.05-0.01 millimeter. 

No. 7. Fine silt, 0.01-0.005 millimeter. 

No. 8. Clay, 0.005-0.0001 millimeter. 

Students are required to keep a careful record of each experiment, and at the end 
of the term to present plates showing their results, and also illustrations of apparatus 
used, together with description of the method employed. 

E.XHIBIT No. 8. 



DETAILED SCHEDULE OF LABORATORY WORK. 

Advanced courm in soils. 

September 18 and 19. — Collected samples of soil from fallow, alfalfa, and corn 
ground to determine moisture content of first and second foot, using sampling tubes 
and other apparatus, as illustrated in fig. 21. 



70 

September 25 and 26. — Collected samples of surface foot of muck, tirt^t bottom and 
second botom soil, for determination of weight per cubic foot of soil under field con- 
ditions, using large tube, as illustrated in fig. 21. 

October 2 and S. — Discussion of results as obtained in the above experiments with 
special reference to the methods of expressing amounts of water in the soil; that is, 
per cent fresh weight, per cent dry weight, amount of water per cubic foot, and sur- 
face inches water. 

October 9, 10, 16, 17, 23, 24, 30, and 31. — Mechanical analysis of two samples of soil — 
a sand and a clay — by the Osborne beaker method, as modified and used by the 
Bureau of Soils and described in Bulletin Xo. 4 of the Bureau, pages 8-18. 

November 6, 7, 13, and 14- — Separation of "silt," "fine silt," and "clay" by the 
centrifugal method as used in the Bureau of Soils. 




Fi'-i. 21. — Api>nratu.s I'ur taking soil .sampk'.-. 

Xfireiidier 20, ,.'1, 27, 2S, and Devendier 4, ■'>, 11, and 12. — Determination of moisture, 
soluble salts, and temperature of soils by the electrical method, as described and 
used by the Bureau of Soils. 

KxniHiT No. i». 
EXAMINATION IN ELEMENTARY COURSE IN FARM CROPS. 

The following list of examination «iuestions will serve to indicate the scope of the 
work covered in the course: 

1. Name and explain the reasons for crop rotation. 

2. Explain three methods of crop improvement. 

3. Give the following statistics on corn and oats for tiie United States during the 
last decade: {a) Average annual acreage; [b) average annual yield; (e) average 
annual yield per acre; (d) average value per acre. 

4. Xame the eight leading l^tates in the pro<luctiou of eacli of the following crops: 
Corn, oats, and barley. 

5. Describe structure and give chemical composition of a grain of wheat. 

6. Name the types of Indian corn and give the distinguishing characteristics of 
each. 

7. CtIvc the chemical composition of corn. 

8. Give general directions as to dei^th of planting, time of i)lanting, and thickness 
of planting corn. 

9. State the reasons for shallow cultivation of corn. 

10. Discuss the following: Time of sowing, depth of sowing, and amount of wheat 
to sow per acre. 

11. What points should be considered in distinguishing V)etween varieties of wheat? 

12. Discuss briefly the cost and methods of shipping grain from the farms of the 
Northwest to the Atlantic seaboard. 

13. State the conditions of climate, soil, and seed bed best adapted f(jr oats. 



71 

14. I)isfU!:;s .Ifptli of sowing, tune oi sowing', an<l amount of oats to sow per acre. 

15. Name tlie regions of greatest pro<Uu'tion of rye and l)arli'y in the United States. 
Iti. Give briefly the history of tiie eultivation of grasses and clovers. 

17. (live eommon and scientific nanii' of six grasse.:! that are grown in Dhio. 

IS and 19. Under the following heads discn.«s common red clover, crimson clover, 
alsike clover, alfalfa: («) Scientific name; (h) valnv for pasturage and hay; (<■) cli- 
mate and soil conditions favoral)le. 

20 and 21. Tender the following heads discuss Indian c< mi as a silage crop: (<() Total 
yield of digestible initrients as comjiared with other crops; {/>) varieties best adapted; 
(c) thickness of planting; (r?) projier stage of maturity for harvesting. 

22. (iive directions for growing sugar beets. 

ExHimr No. 10. 

LIST OF LABORATORY OR FIELD PRACTICUMS IN ELEMENTARY COURSE IN 

FARM CROPS. 

Practicum No. 1. 

Eight varieties of corn are grown on the university farm annually for instructional 
purposes. Students are given this work in the fall term of necessity. Each student 
is provided with the accompanying score card and asked to judge only the stalks in 
this exercise. 

Practicum No. 2. 

The ears, husked from the variety plats, are brought to the laboratory, where a 
few of the best are selected and the students are asked to score them carefully, 
according to the card standards as indicated in the following form: 

Stinh'tits' score curd. 
DENT CORN. 



Scale of points. 


■6 

3 


: 

X 


L 


7 


I 


X 

• 


J 


X 


t 


X 

;; 


) 
" 


X 


3 


X 


1 


X 




X 




1 

X 





11 

X o 


1 

X 




STALK. 

Hcifjht—n feet for southern, 10 feet for 
central, and 9 feet for northern Ohio.. 

Ci ream lor nee between first and second 
joints. Si-ii inches, giving sufficient 

' support to plant without undue coarse- 
ness of stalk 

L(are>t abundant, indicatinggrowth and 
adding to the feeding value of the 


3 

3 

3 

3 
3 

16 

6 
10 

10 

10 


__ 


., 








Iliiskx abundant and moderately ad- 
hering for protection of ear against 








1 






EARS. 

FirmnesK of grains and cob, and of grains 
on the cob, indicating ripeness and 






•■ 






Perfeetion and unij'ormil!/ of shape of 
grains making rclws regular, and sur- 
face of ear smooth and even 

Spaee bdirt en mu-g should be filled 

Uniformity of eoUir \n grains and cob.s, 
indicating trueness to type 

FiUimj out at (/; •/.-.— ears "should be cy- 
lindrical and well rounded out at butt 
and tip 





72 

Students' score card — Continued. 
DENT CoRX— Continnt'ii. 



Scale of fxiints. 


'6 
5: 


1 
7. 


i 


/. 


0) 


3 
1 

X 


o 


4 

X 


1 


V. 




( 
1 

X 


■6 

0) 

V 

11 


1 

X 


i 


f 

X 


•6 


1 
X 

— 


1 


10 

■§ -2 

X '- 


11 

S a; 

C o 
X C 


1 

a 

0) 

■a 

X 


2 

■a 
o 

g 

o 
o 


EARS — continued. 
Per rent nfgraintoenr. 85 per cent. Esti- 


10 
10 

8 

6 


■■ 


- 




•- 






Length—lO inches in southern and cen- 
tral, and 9 inches in northern Ohio ... 

Cireumference, at two-fifths the length, 
measuring from base, 7-7^ Inches in 
southern and central, and 6J-7 inches 


-- 


Juncture of cob with stalk, } inch in di- 
ameter, giving sufficient support for 
ear without causing inconvenience in 


1 

i 




Total 


1 
1 


_l_ 


1 

1 


— 








1 














1 










_ 











XAME OF VAKIETY. 



NAME OF VARIETY — continued. 



9. 
10. 

n. 

12. 



student: 
Date: — 



Praoticinn Xo. 8. 



The selected ear? a'-e slielled, weighed, and the tigures arranged according to the 
following outline, which is handed them: 



No. 2 



Variety. 



Weight ear.! ,^^\^^hj^„_ 



Per cent 
shelled corn. 



Pounds 
shelled corn 
in 1 bushel 

ears (68 
pounds). 



Pounds ears 
in 1 bushel 
shelled corn. 



No. 7 
No. 8 



Remarks: 



Prac-ticnm Xo. 4. 



A STUDY OF TniRTV-XINK V.VRIETIES OF WINTER \VHE.\T CLASSIFICATION. 

A. Bearded: 

{a) Glumes white. 

(a^) Berry red. 

1. Length of straw less than 3 feet 6 inches. 

2. Length of straw more than 8 feet (3 inches, 
(b^) Berry white. 

3. Length of straw less than 3 feet 6 inches. 

4. Length of straw more than 3 feet 6 inches. 



73 

A. Beardeil — Continneil. 

[b) Glumes bron/A-. 

(a') Berry red. 

r>. Length of straw less than .'> feet G inches. 

6. J.eiiirth of- straw iixirc tliaii I! feet i> inches. 
(1)') Berry white. 

7. J^engtli of straw less than ',i feet (i inches. 
S. Length of straw more than .S feet (> inches. 

B. Beardless: 

(o) Cilunies white. 

^a') Berry red. 

9. Length of straw less than M feet tl inches. 

10. Length of straw more than .S feet (! inches. 
{]/) Berry white. 

11. Length of straw less than 3 feet (> inches. 

12. Length of straw more than ;> feet (> inidies. 
(b) Glumes bronze. 

(a') Berry red. 

13. Length of straw le.ss than 3 feet 6 inches. 

14. Length of straw more than 3 feet 6 inches. 
(1/) Berry white. 

15. Length of straw less than 3 feet 6 inches. 

16. Length of straw more than 3 feet 6 inches 
Each student is required to hand in a written report of this work. 

Practicum No. 5. 

About ;May 1 each year the class spends one period making notes on the condition 
of 15 to 20 varieties of grasses and clovers in the grass garden for use later in the 
term when they come to study the varieties more fully. 

Practicum No. 6. 

The "Howe Grain Tester" is used in testing the purity and weight per bushel of 
wheat, oats, etc. 

Practicuins Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10. 

About four periods at the close of the term are given to the study of 15 to 20 varie- 
ties of grasses, clovers, and forage plants. Students use the dried specimens in the 
laboratory as well as the growing plants in the "grass garden." The following out- 
line is given each student, who is required to present an essay on the subject at the 
end of the term : 

DESCRIPTION OF tiRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

Describe the following plants from the bundles given and state use, value, and 
climatic range and adaptation to soil, and give briefly the results obtained with these 
plants at experiment stations and elsewhere. 

The following books may be used for reference, while lielow will be given refer- 
ences under each variety to results at experiment stations: 

Vasey's Agricultural Grasses of the United States; Beal's Grasses of North America; 
Ilackel's True Grasses; Handbook of Experiment Station Work; Grasses of Ten- 
nessee, Part II; Grasses and Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants, by 
Professor Shaw ; Reports of Kansas State Board of Agriculture, 1895 and 1900; Per- 
manent and Temporary Pastures, Sutton; Forage Ci'ops other than Grasses, Shaw; 
Bulletins of the Division of Agrostology: 
1. Poa pralenms, L., Kentucky Blue Grass, Bulletins 5 and 15, Illinois Station; Bul- 
letin 20, Mississippi Station. 



74 • 

2. Ayrudli< lulgaris, L., Redtop, Bulletin 15, Illinois Station; Bulletin 20, Missis- 

sippi Station. 

3. Phleum }vatensi\ 

4. Alppecurus praienHts, L., ^leadow Foxtail. 

5. Dactt/JIs glomerata, L., Orchard (Irass, Bulletins 5 and 15, Illinois Station; Bul- 

letin 20, Mississippi Station. 

6. Festuca elatior. 

7. Featuca pratensis, Huds., Meadow Fescue, Bulletins 5 and 15, Illinois Station. 

8. LoVmm pcrenne, L.-, Perennial Rye Grass, Bulletin 12, Colorado Station; Bulletin 

15, Illinois Station; Bulletin 20, ^Mississippi Station. 

9. Arena elatior, L., Tall ^Meadow Oat Grass, Bulletin 15, Illinois Station; Annual 

Report 1889, Mississippi Station. 

10. Anthoxanihum odoratum. 

11. Medicago satifa, L., Alfalfa, Bulletin 2, Colorado Station; Bulletin 15, Illinois 

Station; Bulletin 20, INIississippi Station; \J. S. Department of Agriculture Bul- 
letin 31 ; Kansas Report, 1895. 

12. Trifvliuni pratense. 

13. Tri folium inrurnatum, Crimson vr Scarlet Clover, Bulletin 16, Delaware Station; 

Report 89, INIaryland Station; Annual Report 1889, 3Iississippi Station; Bulle- 
tin 44, Virginia Station. 

14. Trifolinrn hyhridiun. Alsike Clover, Report '^'■■\ ^Maryland Station; Annual Report 

1889, Mississijipi Station ; Bulletin 15, Illinois Station. 

15. Trifoliuiii repen^i. 

THE AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF 

GOTTINGEN. 

By F. W. Wo LI., 
AxxiMaiit Prafetofor aj Ayricnlturdt Clit niistr;/, rKlrcrKlli/ nf Wlscon.^lii. 

This institution is one of tlio oldest unci foremost of its kind in Ger- 
many. It is perhaps better known among American experiment sta- 
tion and eollege men than any other foreign agricultural institution, 
on. account of the higli cliaracter of investigational work which has 
been conducted there during the last half centtiry, and because of the 
many Americans who have studied in Gottingen during this time. 

HISTORY. 

Lectures on agriculture have been delivered at Gottingen I'liiversity 
since 1770, when J. Beckmann was appointed regular professor of 
agriculture in the universit}'. He lectured on the subject of agricul- 
ture every summer until his death in 1811, and also founded an 
agricultural-])otanical garden to supply instructional material for his 
lectures, in which all Cirerman plants of interest agricidturally were to 
be grown. It is characteristic that the object of the lectures delivered 
was not to educate intending farmers, but "to give an insight in farm 
operations to students who, later on in public service, would be called 
upon to represent economic interests." 

With some interruptions, the lectures were continued until 1852. 
In that year a special agricultural course of instruction was arranged 



75 

for at the uiiivevsity, through the efforts of the pohticul econoniLst, 
Professor Hanssen, of Gottino-cn ITniversity. The course was phuuied 
to hist four semesters and was phiced under the inunediatc charoo of 
an ag-ricultural faculty composed of four professors, amono- whom 
were Wohler. the famous chemist, and Gripenkerl. who until his 
death in 1000 tilled the' chair of agriculture in the university. The 
plan of study of the new course was comprehensi\e. Besides the 
various fundamental natural sciences, it included agi-icultural chem- 
istry, veterinary science, meteorology, agronom}-, farm management, 
forestry, political science, and rural law. The theoretical studies 
were to be supplemented by agricultural excursions to estates in the 
vicinity of Gottingen; special arrangements were made by which the 
large Government estate, Weende (an old monastery farm, situated 
about a mile north of Gottingen), could be visited at any time for 
instructional purposes, and agricultural experiments could also be 
made on the land belonging to the estate. 

The new course started under favorable auspices and received an 
impetus through the establishment of the Weende Experiment Station 
in 1S5T by the lioyal Agricultural Society of Hanover. One object 
in establishing the experiment station was to supplement the agricul- 
tural instruction at the university hy demonstrations, '"just as if it 
w^ere an organic part of the same." In 1857 the othcial name of the 
course was changed to the Royal Agricultural Academy of G()ttingen- 
Weende, so as to give detinite expression to the close cormection 
between the theoretical instruction offered at the university and the 
practical work at the model Government farm, Weende. The attend- 
ance at the acadenw gradually increased from only four students in 
iSol to over forty in the beginning of the sixties. About this time 
the number of students that came to receive agricultural instruction 
began to grow smaller, and there was a steady decrease during the fol- 
lowing years, until in 1871-72 scarcely more than a dozen attended the 
academy. The cause of the decreasing attendance during the last 
years of this period w^as not difficult to understand in view of the fact 
that the Agricultural Institute of Halle University, which w^as estab- 
lished in 1863, showed a steadily increasing attendance during the 
same time. The Nestor among agricultural university teachers, Julius 
Kiibn, through whose efforts the Halle Agricultural Institute was 
established, and to whom more than an}^ other man is due the credit 
foi the splendid growth of agricultural universit}' instruction. ))oth in 
German}' and in other countries, was the ffrst one to call attention to 
the fact that an agricultural educational institution that is nothing but 
a professional school does not supply the facilities for instruction 
which the times demand. Agricultural science is not merely an aggre- 
gation of applied sciences, it has its own special sphere, and in order 
to live and develop it must have opportunities for veritication of prac- 



76 

tical experiences and tor investigation of its special problems — similar 
facilities to those long- ago accorded, e. g., to medicine. Teachers 
who lack this opportunity to verify and enlarge the knowledge of the 
principles of agriculture can not do the best work for their students 
or for their profession. 

A reorganization of the Gottingen Agricultural Academy took place 
during 1871-1875, to a large extent in accordance with the ideas which 
J. Kiihn advanced and advocated with signal success. The new agri- 
cultural institute of the University of Gottingen (PI. XV) dates from 
this period. New buildings were erected, laboratories ])uilt, the 
Weende Experiment Station was removed to the agricultural institute 
(in 1871), and experimental grounds, with garden and greenhouse, 
were provided for. Later changes made have been comparatively 
few, and only one of greater importance, viz, the recent establish- 
ment of an agricultural-bacteriological institute, the first one of its 
kind in the workl, so far as is known. 

The attendance at the institute during late years, according to the 
published university catalogue, has been about 30. Anum))er of spe- 
cial students, however, take single lectures or special laboratory work 
in the institute without being registered as agricultural students, so 
that the actual mmiber of students attending lectures of professors or 
working in the laboratories of the institute is somewhat greater than 
the figure given, but is at any rate small compared with the attendance 
in agricultural educational institutions of similar standing in this 
country. 

PRESENT ORGANIZATION. 

The Gottingen Agricultural Institute, as organized^ at present, is 
composed of six different departments, viz: 

(1) General agriculture and animal husbandr}-, in charge of the 
director of the institute. Prof. W. Fleischmann. 

i'2) Agricultural chemical laboratorv of the university. Prof. B. 
Tollens. 

(3) Agricultural experimental grounds. Prof. C. von Seelhorst. 

(4) Animal physiological experiment station. Prof. Franz Lehmann. 

(5) The veterinary institute of the university, Prof. H. J. Esser. 

(6) The agricultural 1)acteriological institute of the university. Prof. 
Alfred Koch. 

A.s.s/''<f(nifs in the agt'icuJtnml Imtitute. — In one respect there is a 
marked difference between the Gottingen Agricultural Institute and 
Station and our American colleges and stations, viz, the abundant help, 
skilled or otherwise, available for the routine work to be done. The 
janitors of the European stations do a large amount of semichemical 
work and render valuable service in many ways that those in America 
are never called upon to do; the assistants or division heads have in 



U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bol. 127, Office of Expt Stations. 



Plate XV. 




77 

general complete chai'iic of all routine work in tiieir res|)ective depart- 
ments, such as laboratory instruction and the pre})aration of demon- 
stration material for lectures, thus enabling the director or professor 
to devote nearly his undivided time and energies to work of a higher 
grade and to his own studies. The following statement gives the 
number of assistants and janitors or unskilled laborers, in the Gottingen 
Aii'ricultural Institute during the season of 1001: 



Departments. Assistants, "'i^^borers*'"^ 



Dairy laboratory 

Agrii'ultnral chemical laboratoiy 

Plant culture station 

Animal physioloirical station 

Veterinary dciiurtiuent 

Agricultural liactcriologieal institute 

Total 




oThree in winter. &Xine in winter. 

REgUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION. 

To be admitted as a student in the agricultural institute, as in all 
other departments of the university, one must go through the formal- 
ity of matricidation. Germans are matriculated w hen they are gradu- 
ates of a gymnasium (high school) or have a similar preliminar}^ 
education, while for foreigners a diploma from a recognized college or 
university is required. Some latitude as to preliminary education 
required is allowed in admitting agricultural students, and older farm- 
ers, as well as others who wish to attend lectures, may be admitted as 
Hospitanten or Horer (special students) almost without regard to 
previous training. Several 3ears of practical farm work are con- 
sidered highly desirable, and students are urged to come to the uni- 
versit}' so equipped, but previous training in this line is not required. 
A \'ery large proportion of the agricultural students are the sons of 
more or less well-to-do farmers, who have taken part in the farm Avork 
when their school studies allowed it, and who expect to return to the 
home farm on the successful completion of their uni\'ersity work; 
others expect to seek positions as foremen on large estates, or as 
teachers in the lower agricultural schools. 

COURSE OF STUDY. 

There is no rigid course of study offered in the agricultural institute, 
nor is the duration of the course at all fixed; it is expected that the 
required studies can be finished in live or six semesters, but it depends 
on the student himself whether or not he Avill present himself for 
examinations after this time. The following studies are required in 
the agricultural course as arranged at the present: History of agri- 
culture; plant production, horticulture, plant diseases; animal hus- 



bandry — breeding-, rearing-, and feeding- of hort^es, cattle, .siieep, 
swine, and poultry; veterinary .science: ag-ricultural physics — drain- 
age, irrigation, surveying-, agricultural machinery and apparatus, farm 
buildings; farm management and farm bookkeeping. In addition to 
these professional studies the following- fundamental sciences are 
required: Chemistry (general, industrial, agricultural), physics, bot- 
any (general, svstematic, ph3'siological), bacteria and 3'easts, zoology, 
geology and mineralogy, meteorology, political economy, and rural 
law. The instruction is imparted b}- means of lectures, laboratory" 
work, demonstrations, excursions, and seminars. 

Owing- to the fact that many of the agricultural students have a lim- 
ited previous training, the lectures offered in the agricultural institute 
at Gottingen. as in other German institutions of this class, are, as a gen- 
eral rule, quite elementary. It is well for American students intending 
to study in Europe to bear this in mind, as it will save them from dis- 
appointment later on. The information conveyed in a course of lec- 
tures which may not cover more than two or three hours a week for a 
brief German universitv semester — sixteen to seventeen weeks in win- 
ter and twelve to thirteen weeks in summer — must necessarily be gen- 
eral and can present only the main facts of the subject treated. And 
after all. the knowledge thus conveved is but a small part of the bene- 
fit derived from attending such a course of lectures; of far higher 
value to the young student must be counted the opportunity of becom- 
ing acquainted with a thinker, to note his methods of treatment and 
pn^sentation. and to catch something of the enthusiasm of a scholar. 

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 

Th(' lectures delivered are, whenever possible, illustrated l)y charts, 
maps, museum specimens, or simple experiments. In the lectures 
on plant nutrition, for example, the whole lecture table is generallj' 
covered with specimens of minerals, soils, soil constituents, or fertili- 
zers, according- to the subject to be treated in the lecture. A synopsis 
of each lecture, or manifold copies of tables of ligures and the like, to 
which reference will be made in the lecture, are also furnished by 
some professors. The literature on the subject treated is also gener- 
ally shown, either at the beginning of the course or as a special topic 
is reached, and usually sent around the class for inspection, in the 
same wa}" as the specimens referred to in the lectures. Electric or 
other kinds of stereopticons are used at times for exhibiting pictures, 
charts, etc., on a screen, but not to such an extent as in our better- 
equipped institutions, nor as successful!}', so far as my experience 
goes. 



79 



INSTRUCTTOX IX AiJKOXOMY 



The method of iiistnu-lion in :i<in)ii()iny udoplcd at the Gotting-en 
Ag-ric'ultunil Instituto is of iiiti'ivst to the student of ao-rieulturo 
because of the rieh material for ilhistration and demonstration at 
hand and the excellent opportunity which the excursions made to the 
man}' large estates in the surrounding country otl'er for studying dif- 
ferent systems of farming under German conditions. The American 
student will find the work done in this line full of suggestions and 
directly applicable at least to Eastern conditions. The instruction is 
carried on by means of lectur(>s. Ia])oratory Avork, demonstration on 
the experimental grounds and in the garden, agricultural excursions, 
and the agricultural seminar. This work is in charge of the director 
of the agricultural experimental grounds, Prof. V. von Seelhorst, 
who is also professor of agrononi}' in the universit}' . 

Lectures a?id lahoratory irorl'. — The courses of lectures olfer(>d in 
agrononw are, in the winter semester, general plant production (plant 
life) and breeding of agricultural crops; in the summer semester, 
culture of special crops, and weeds and plant diseases. The charac- 
teristics of the A'arious kinds 'of grains, roots, tubers, and other agri- 
cultural crops are discussed in the special course, specimens of grain 
in the sheaf, potatoes, seeds, etc., being supplit^i in each case, and 
botanical charts and other illustrative material shown. The labora- 
tory instruction is given throughout the year one afternoon in the 
week. It consists of microscopical and agricultural examinations of 
concentrated feeding stuti's as to more important adulterations, (j[ual- 
ity, etc.; further seed tests, and. in the winter semester, studies of 
plant diseases. Chemical analyses of crops, soils, fertilizers, etc., are 
made only as required in special investigations, the general methods 
adopted in the lal)oratory work being such as the students will be 
likeh" to use and can use later on in their work on the farm. 

Deiiwnstrat/onx. — The demonstrations on the experimental grounds, 
in the garden and the greenhouse are of special interest and value to 
the students. They are given once a week (Monday morning from 7 
to 8) during the whole year so long as there is anything of interest 
agriculturally to be seen outside. The writer attended all demonstra- 
tions given during the summer semester of 1901, and was pleased to 
observe the interest which the students evidently took in the demon- 
strations, as well as agreeably surprised to note the regularity with 
which the students met at this rather unusual hour, a regularity which 
was the more surprising as the attendance at lectures, in the summer 
semester at least, at most German universities is far from regular. 
The popularity of the profcvssor in charge dou])tless contributed to 
bring about this result, l)ut not more than did the practical nature of 
the subject and the abundant material for demonstration at hand. In 
these demonstrations the ])rofessor would conduct tlu» class to the 



80 

particular part of the grounds which he wished to speak about, and 
would then explain the experiments in progress and call attention to 
special points of importance. The next and following weeks a stop 
would be made at the same plats to note the development of the crop 
under the different conditions, differentiation of varieties or of crops 
under different systems of fertilization, etc. The continuity of the 
demonstrations gave these talks increased value, the eyes of the students 
became trained to detect minute differences in the color or luxuriance 
of plants, and they could follow the gradual differentiations in plants 
from week to week due to different conditions of fertilization or other 
intiuences. The effects of a scarcity or an excess of moisture; effects 
of hail on different crops, and how they gradually recover, or fail 
to recover, fi-oni these effects; estimation of the damage done by hail, 
weeds, attacks of insect, or fungus diseases; identification of these, 
their methods of attack and distri])ution, and how to combat them; 
estimations of yields of different crops, etc., are some of the almost 
innumerable subjects which furnish a well-informed teacher material 
for lectures in the field. The lectures were informal talks, often 
interrupted by tpiestioning of' the students as to their opinions of 
matters observed or to be observed. The students would jot down in 
their note books, although not as frequently as desirable, facts or 
suggestions brought out. Aside from the fact that the demonstra- 
tions served as a convenient method of gathering a large amount of 
direct practical information on farm topics, they were of great value 
to the students in teaching them to use their eyes and to apply knowl- 
edge obtained in other disciplines, and last, but not least, served to 
create or maintain an interest and enthusiasm for farm matters which 
perhaps no other method of instruction would be likely to equal. 

It might be thought that there could hardly be anything new or 
interesting to note on grounds but little over 15 acres in area when 
the demonstrations came as often as once every week, but with the 
rich niaterial available, which included dozens of different plat experi- 
ments with ail kinds of farm crops, rotation experiments, fertilizer 
tests, pot experiments, etc., this was not the case; on the contrary, 
the hour proved invariably too short to go over only the portion of 
the grounds planned each time. The arrangement of the German 
university year is most favorable for observing the larger share of the 
round of farm operations. The summer semester covers the time 
from the end of April to the beginning of August, and the winter 
semester the time from the end of October to the beginning of ]\Iarch. 
In these two periods nearlv the whole growing periods of most farm 
crops fall, and most of the important farm work, like preparation of 
the land in the spring; seeding of spring grains; planting of peas, 
beans, root crops, and potatoes, and cultivation of the same; cutting 
and curing of hay; cutting, stacking, and harvesting of small grains, 



81 

pea.s, and other crops; securing* the second crop of hii}'; harvesting" 
and storing of root crops and potatoes; preparing and seeding land to 
winter grains, etc. Thus a full 3'ear\s attendance at the demonstra- 
tions will bring all the main farm operations up for discussion; it will 
acquaint the students with the best practices in all cases, and will give 
them a fund of combined practical and theoretical knowledge which 
can be drawn upon for assistance throughout their lifetime. 

Excvrsioiis. — A fourth method of instruction in agronomy at Got- 
tingen Agricultural Institute is supplied hy the agricultural excursions 
which are made to estates in the vicinit}' of Gottingen once every week^ 
general}}' Saturtlay afternoons, but at times covering one or more days. 
The professor and students are shown around the premises l)y the owner, 
or in his absence, by his foreman, who explains the sj'stem of farming 
followed, the character of soil and manuring in the different fields, 
and the history of these for a couple of 3'ears ])ack as to crops grown 
and systems of fertilization. Stables, barns, tool sheds, and other farm 
buildings are also visited, and the owner's experience is ascertained in 
each case, questions put b}' the professor or any in the party l)eing as 
a rule answered in an open, businesslike way. The excursion gener- 
ally ends with a short social time, when light refreshments arc often 
served, and points not previously touched upon, or more general topics 
connected with the farm management, are brought up and discussed. 
The party is apparently heartily welcome at all the places visited, the 
farmers seeming to consider it an honor to receive their visitors, in 
spite of the fact that the visit in some cases is a j^early or even a half- 
year I3' affair. The hospitable spirit shown toward the professor and 
the 3'oung men Avho are about to enter into practical farm work them- 
selves, is strong evidence of the high esteem in which German farmers 
hold their higher agricultural educational institutions and the men who 
are intrusted with the instruction of their sons or neighbors' sons in 
their future profession. 

As the excursions are under the charge of the professor of agronomy 
they are necessaril}^ of greater benefit to students in furnishing infor- 
mation in this line than along the line of animal husbandry, or special 
dair}' husbandry. In the latter subjects there is, in general, less to be 
learned in a German university, or in Germany on the whole, by an 
American student, than in almost any other branch of study, so far as 
the writer's experience goes. 

The relations of the Government estate, Weende, to the agricultural 
institute are somewhat different from those of the other estates visited, 
in so far as the renter is under contract to give agricultural students 
occasional talks on the work in progress on the estate, and to allow 
inspection of the estate b}- the students at any time. The fact that the 
present renter of the estate, Oekonomierat Beseler, is one of the promi- 
nent grain growers of German}', who, besides being the originator of 
26777— No. 127—03 6 



82 

a number of improved strains of small grains, especially wheat and oats, 
is a progressive farmer and an excellent instructor, makes the excur- 
sions to Weende of the highest value to the agricultural students. 
The Weendc estate has a total area of 672 acres, of which about 480 
acres of fields and meadows lie in the alluvial or diluvial soil of the 
Leine Valley, and the rest is keuper (pcecilitic) soil. To the Weende 
estate belongs also the Deppoldshausen branch farm, situated on the 
Gottingen forest plateau, about 1,000 feet high, and 3 miles distant 
from Weende. This farm lies in the shell-lime formation, and has 
a thin clay soil calling for methods of farming entirely different from 
those of the valle}' farms; it includes an area of 360 acres of cultivated 
land and 77 acres of pastures. The s^^stem of farming followed on 
estates in th(> vicinity of Gottingen is mostly grain raising and sugar- 
beet culture, but there are also a number of large dairy farms that are 
visited at intervals. 

Seminar. — The fifth branch of the instruction in plant production 
in Gottingen is the agricultural seminar. This is held in conjunction 
with the agricultural excursions, and meets once a week from S to 0.30 
in the evening ((> to 7.30 in the winter), the professor of agronom}^ 
conducting the seminar. One of the students, acting as reporter on 
the agricultural excursion, prepares a paper on the estate visited, 
which is read at the seminar. In this a full account is given of what 
has been seen or K^arned about the place visited, and criticisms are 
offered as to farming methods, etc. The discussion following the 
paper brings out important points that were not considered in the 
paper, and enlarges upon such not sufficiently elucidated. The l)usiness 
side of the farm operations, the economy of systems of fertilization, 
the statics of fertilizing ingredients in the soil, system of crop rota- 
tion adopted, and special conditions of soil or markets under which 
the farmer works are among the su))jects likeh'to come up for discus- 
sion each time. The regular attendance of the students at the seminar, 
and the lively discussions which generally arise as to methods of farm 
practice or principles underh'ing these, testify to the interest Avhich 
the students take in this work and the benefit which they derive from 
taking part in the seminar. 

FACILITIES FOR INSTRUCTION. 

The facilities for work in the various departments are in general up 
to the requirements of modern educational institutions, even according 
to the standards common in this countiw, where, as a rule, buildings 
and equipment have been provided for the special purpose in view, 
and are not, as is often the case abroad, the adapted inheritance of 
earlier times. An American student will most likeh^ be surprised, 
however, to note the small scale on which the equipment is arranged 
at Gottingen. as at nearlv all other German agricultural colleges. 



83 



C 



The dairy luid buctoriologiciil labonilorv of Professor Floiscliiuann, 
whose name is identified with the development of dairy science in all 
its phases from its Vjeginning- until the present time, consists of two 
rooms, one about 24 l)y 40 feet and th(>, other 24 by 14 feet, with 
accommodations for less than half a dozen students. The agricadtural 
chemical lul)orat()ry (Professor Tollens) consists of two rooms, one for 
quiJitative and (quantitative analysis, with accommodations for 3t; stn- 
dents, and one for luhanced or thesis work, for 10 students. The gen- 
eral auditorium or lecture room of the agricultural institute has a seat- 
ing capacity of a])out 36, and is never crowded — less than ever later 
in the semester, owing to 
the German system of non- 
compU'lsory attiMidance. 

For pur[)oses of instruc- 
tion and demonstration in 
agronomy use is made of 
the experimental !^;'rounds, 
greenhouse, and other 
equipment of the jilant- 
culture experiment sta- 
tion. The experimental 
grounds have a total area 
of about 15 acres, and ad- 
join the agricviltural insti- 
tute on the north (PL XVI, 
ligs. 1 and 2). Experi- 
mental work on this land 
was begun b}' Professor 
Drechsler in the beginning 
of the seventies, and has 
included trials of S3'stems fi 
of rotations, variety tests 
of farm crops, fertilizer experiments, and improvement of cereals and 
other crops through continued selection. The diagram herewith given 
shows the divisions of the experimental grounds (tig. 22). The crops 
grown on these in 1001 were as. follows: 

Field A. — Gottinger r3"e. 

Field B I. — Square-head wheat. 

Field B II. — Potatoes, 22 varieties. Potash fertilizer experiments. 

Field C— Red clover. 

Field D. — Peas, 2 varieties, and })eans. Potash fertilizer experi- 
ments. 

Field E. — Rye, flax, winter wheat, mangel-wurzels, barley, beans, 
potatoes, spring wheat, oats, sugar beets, and potatoes. Fertilizer 
experiments. 



/ 


5. 


D 


I 




/ 

; 

/ 


H 


\ 


\ 


B, 


\ 


\ 


^ \ 


\ 


E 


V 


V 









UJ. — Plan of experimental grounds at Gc'Utingen Agri- 
cultural Institute. 



84 

Field F. — Plant l)reeding experiments with rye, winter wheat, 
spring wheat, oats, sugar beets, and potatoes. Fertilizer experiments 
with oats and sugar beets. 

Field F {)io\\\\x of plant-breeding plats). — Clover, tests of 3(> varie- 
ties of diti'erent origin; spring wheat, 8 varieties; potatoes, breeding 
experiments with 4 varieties. 

Field F (east of plant- breeding plats). — Sugar and fodder beets 
(experiments with diti'erent distances of planting); potatoes, 5 varie- 
ties; peas, 2 varieties. 

Field G. — Oats, Gottinger and Beseler's improved, with clover. 

Field II. — Root crops: Sugar beets, mangel-wurzels. Potash fer- 
tilizer experiments. 

Field I. — Square-head wheat. 

In the trial garden small plats are grown of all plants of agricultural 
importance to northern (lermany, the dilferent kinds of grasses and 
iodder plants, cereals, root crops, small fruits, weeds, etc. Mixtures 
of grasses and leguminous plants are also grown under different S3"S- 
tems of fertilization, to stud}- the effect or to obtain demonstration 
material for showing the effect of certain f ertilizei's in favoring the 
growth of some plants and checking that of others. Similar expeii- 
ments were also conducted during the season of 1901 in pots in the 
gi'eenhouse, under liberal or scant supplies of water, in the stud}' of 
the effect of Avater supply on the action of different fertilizers or com- 
binations of such. 

Pot experiments are conducted in the greenhouse shown in PI. XVII. 
The dimensions of the greeidiouse are 23 by -11) feet, with a workroom 
added, 13 by 30 feet. It has accommodations for about 600 pots, 
which are placed on trucks and in good weather aiwa^^s kept outside. 
The experiments are conducted according to tlie plan worked out at 
the Darmstadt statioti. The general problem studied during late years 
is the influence of the water supply on the utilization of different 
kinds of fertilizers l)y cereals, grasses, and other farm crops. The 
laboratorv investigations are chiefly supplementary- to experiments 
conducted in the fleld, garden, or greenhouse, the main work of the 
assistants l)eing the chemical analysis of materials harvested, soils, 
fertilizers, etc. A great deal of independent research work has, how- 
ever, also been conducted in the laboratory, and has from time to time 
been published in the periodical literature, especially in the Journal 
fiir Landwirtschaft. 

Library and museum. — A description of a German agricultural 
institute would be incomplete without a mention of its library and 
museum, both of which form all-important parts of the facilities for 
instruction and research. The library of the Gottingen Agricultural 
Institute is small, less than 3,000 volumes, but is very complete in 
German works on agriculture and allied subjects. To an American 



U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bu!. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate XVI. 




Fig. 1.— Gottingen Agricultural Institute— Looking Southeast. 




'iG. 2.— Gottingen Agricultural Institute— Looking Northeast from Institute 
Buildings Across the Experiment Plats. 



U. 5. Depl. of Agr., Bui 127, Office of Expt. Stations. 



Plate XVII. 




GoTTiNGEN Agricultural Institute-Greenhouse. 



85 

student the absence of the best foreio-n (English or American) agri- 
cultural literature, in this library as in all other German libraries with 
which the writer is acquainted, will seem strange. In the laboratories 
of the institute are found special small, but good, reference libraries, 
which are accessible at all times and arc of great service to students. 
There is also a reading room, where current numbers of tlie leading 
German (and other continental -European) agricultural papers and 
scientitic magazines are kept. 

The museum of the Gottingen Agricultural Institute was founded 
in 1851 by Professor Gripenkerl, and therefore represents half a cen- 
tury's growth. The agricultural faculty have here from year to year 
deposited collections in their respective lines of instruction and inves- 
tigation, with the view of making it valuable for instructional pur- 
poses rather than of establishing an agricultural museum. The 
collection of feeding stuU's contains samples of feeds used by Henne- 
berg in his fundamental studies on the nutrition of farm animals, and 
numerous other specimens in the museum bear testimoii}' of investi- 
gations conducted at Gottingen during the latter half of the nineteenth 
century. The rich collections thus accumulated form invaluable 
material for demonstration and are constantly utilized by the pro- 
fessors in their lectures. 

o 



LhlVIr'07 



t 



' / 



